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UNITED STATES OF AlVlERiCA. % 



REPORT 



OF THE 



Commission on Industrial Eddcation, 



MADE TO THE 



LEGISLATUEE OX PENNSYLVANIA, 



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WITH APPENDICES. 



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HARRISBURG: 

EDWIN K. MEYEKS, STATE PRINTER. 

1889. 



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In the Senate, April 26th, 1889. 
Itesolved^ by the Senate, (if the House of Eepresentatives concur,) That 
ten thousand copies of the report of the Commission on Industrial Educa- 
tion be printed and bound : Five hundred copies for the use of the Gover- 
nor, five hundred copies for the use of the State Librarian, one thousand 
copies for the use of the Commission, one thousand copies for the use of 
the Superintendent of Public Instruction, two thousand copies for the use 
of the Senate, and five thousand copies for the use of the House of Repre- 
sentatives ; one-tenth of the edition to be bound in half morocco, and the 
remaining nine-tenths in cloth. 

EUSSELL EERETT, 
Chief Clerk of the Senate 

JOHN W. MORRISON, 

Chief Clerk of the House of Representatives, 
Approved— The 3d day of May, A. D. 1889. 

JAMES A. BEAVER. 



PEBFATOEY NOTE. 



The Commission is under obligation to so many institutions and individuals, for 
favors received in the course of its work, that it would be impossible to mention all. 
It may be said in general, that nearly everyone who has been applied to for informa- 
tion has responded with a promptness, fullness and courtesy which has not only 
greatly lightened the labors of the Commission, but has given gratifying evidence of 
the wide-spread interest in the subject of its inquiries. It is due, however, that 
special recognition should be made of the unfailing assistance rendered by His Ex- 
cellency the Governor of the Commonwealth, and his secretary Hon. Gearge Pearson, 
by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and by all other State officials whom 
it has been found necessary to call upon. Valuable assistance has also been received 
from Superintendent MacAUister, the Hon. Edward T. Steel, Miss Catherine Pendle- 
ton, Miss Anna Hallowell and others, of Philadelphia ; from numerous State and lo- 
cal school officials outside of Pennsylvania, and from the heads of institutions specially 
devotedto Manual Training in many parts of the United States. In connection with 
the inquiries made under its direction in Europe, invaluable assistance was rendered 
by Sir Lyon Playfair, Sir Henry E. Roscoe, the Rt. Hon. John Morley, Prof. James 
Bryce, Mr. A. H. D. Ackland, M. P., Mr. Quentin Hogg, Sir Philip Magnus, Dr. J. H. 
Gladstone, Prof. Sylvanus Thompson, the Rev. Alfred Wills and Mr. Gilbert R. Red- 
grave, Secretary of The Royal Technical Commission, of London ; by the Hon. Wil- 
liam Mather, of Manchester ; by MM. Buisson, of the Department of Public In- 
struction, Andre Lebon and R. Chasteauneuf, of Paris ; by MM. Buls, Burgomaster 
of Brussels, and A. Sluys, director of the normal school in the same place. It is 
a special pleasure to record also that the members of the United States Diplomatic 
and Consular service, at the places above mentioned and at Antwerp, were, with- 
out exception, prompt and cordial in facilitating the labors of the Commission. 



REPORT 

OF THE 

Commission Appointed to Make Inquiry and Eeport to 

the Legislature of Pennsylvania Respecting 

the Subject of Industrial Education. 



To the Senate and House of Representatives of the Commonwealth or 

Pennsylvania : 

The Commission appointed to make inquiry respecting the subject 
of Industrial Education, respectfully submits the following report : 

The Legislature at its last session adopted the following concurrent 
resolution : 

'■^ Eesolved (if the House of Representatives concur), Tliatthe Governor is hereby 
authorized and requested to appoint a Commission consisting of not more tlian five 
persons, citizens of this Commonwealtli, to malie inquiry and report to the Legisla- 
ture at its next session, by bill or otherwise, respecting the subject of industrial edu- 
cation, including an examination of the extent to which it is already carried on in 
Pennsylvania and elsewhere ; the best means of promoting and maintaining it in its 
several grades, whether by State or local action alone, or by both combined ; how 
far it is possible or desirable to incorporate it into the existing sj^stem of public in- 
struction ; the best method of training teachers for such schools or departments, and 
what changes, if any, are required in the existing system of normal schools to ena- 
ble them to provide such training, or to meet more tully the needs of the system of 
public instruction as now organized in this State, wath such other inquiries as the 
Commission may itself institute or be requested by the Governor to undertake. 
The members of the Commission shall serve without compensation, except for neces- 
sary expenses and clerk hire actually incurred and approved by the Governor." 

This resolution was approved by his excellency the Governor, May 
19, 1887, and the following gentlemen were subsequently '• appointed 
to serve on the said Commission" : George W. Atherton, LL.D., Pres- 
ident of The Pennsylvania State College; A. H. Fetterolf, Ph. D., 
President of Girard College ; Nathan C. Schaeffer, Ph. D., Kutztown, 
Pa. ; George J. Luckey, Esq., Pittsburgh, Pa. ; Colonel Theodore W. 
Bean, Norristown, Pa. 

The Commission held its first meeting in the Supreme Court chamber, 
Harrisburg, December 9, 1887, and organized by appointing George 
W. Atherton, chairman, and Samuel A Boyle, clerk. After a con- 
sideration of the terms of the resolution, the following specific topics 
of inquiry were adopted as embodying its essential points : 
1 Ed Com. 



2 Repoet of the 

1. To what extent in its several grades, and by what methods, in- 
dustrial education is carried on outside of Pennsylvania as a branch 
of public education. 

2. To what extent and by what methods it is now carried on in the 
several grades of public schools in Pennsylvania, and the practicabil- 
ity of introducing or extending it in such schools, city and rural. 

3. {a) To what extent in its several grades, and by what methods 
it is now carried on in private institutions in Pennsylvania, with the 
relation of such work to other forms of education, to public charities 
and reformatories, to industrial development, and to the general in- 
terests of society. 

{h) The best methods of enlarging and extending such work, hav- 
ing in view also the question of its more or less direct connection with 
existing public systems or agencies. 

4. {a) The best means and methods of establishing and maintain- 
ing it in its several grades : Whether by State action, or by local ac- 
tion, or by both combined. 

{h) How far it can be incorporated into the present school system 
of Pennsylvania, and what, (it* any) changes of law are necessary or 
desirable to that end. 

5. The best methods of training suitable teachers. 

{a) Changes (if any) required for this purpose in the present system 
of normal schools. 

{b) Changes (if any) required to enable the normal schools to 
meet more fully the needs of the present public school system. 

6. As to each of the foregoing topics : 

How far. the educational element should be incorporated into such 
training, as distinguished from the strictly trade, apprentice, or tech- 
nical element. 

In order to make the proposed investigation as thorough as possible 
in the several directions thus suggested, it was thought desirable to 
assign these special lines of inquiry to the different members of the 
Commission, the results in each case to be finally reviewed by the 
Commission as a whole. 

The following resolution was also adopted : 

" Resolved, That the chairman be and hereby is authorized and requested, on be- 
half of the Commission (and as far as practicable) to visit such places and institu- 
tions in Europe as furnish the most systematic and successful instances of industrial 
education, as far as he may deem inquiries in that direction likely to aid the Com- 
mission in discharging the duties intrusted to it by the Commonwealth." 

The individual members of the Commission have pursued the several 
lines of inquiry thus indicated, and the Commission, as a body, has 
met from time to time to compare views and to combine the results 
of investigation, continuing that procedure until shortly before the 
assembling of the present Legislature. They have singly or as a body 
visited many portions of our own State; have conferred with leading 



Industrial Education Commission. 3 

representatives of educational and business interests in Philadelphia, 
Pittsburgh and elsewhere; have visited a few institutions in other 
States; and the chairman, at the request of the Commission and with 
the approval ot the Governor, spent between two and three months 
in an investigation of the same subject in. England, France and Bel- 
gium. Besides this, the members of the Commission have sought to 
make use of all available sources of information in the way of printed 
reports, discussions, treatises, etc , and, divesting themselves of all 
preconceived opinions which could interfere with the thoroughness 
and impartiality of their work, have diligently addressed themselves 
to the inquiries marked out for them by the resolution above quoted. 

It should perhaps be said at the outset, that without neglecting other 
branches of inquiry, they have considered themselves especially 
charged with the question as stated in the words of the resolution, 
"How far it is possible or desirable to incorporate it [industrial edu- 
cation] into the existing system of public instruction, and the best 
method of training teachers for such schools or departments." In order 
to reach definite results, they have endeavored to ascertain, 

First. To what extent and with what results such instruction has 
been actually established as a part of public school education in the 
United States and elsewhere ; 

Second. Whether the introduction of such instruction in the public 
schools of this State is desirable ; and, 

Third. Whether, if desirable, it is also practicable. 

In the ap]Dendices to the report will be found a large amount of 
material, embodying the results of such inquiry, showing to what 
extent industrial education has been successfully established in many 
places, at home and abroad, and presenting the views of eminent men 
in the various walks of life as to its general results. This material 
cannot profess to be more than a meagre selection from the great mass 
within reach. The difficulty has been not to find material enough, 
but to select from the profusion accessible, what seemed likely to 
prove the most useful portions. The guiding principle in this selection 
has been to present the results of actual experience in different 
branches of the work ; and, in the hope of furnishing practical assist- 
ance to institutions and localities, a few courses and methods now 
in successful operation are given, with rome statements of the expense 
involved. Theoretical views have been given weight only so far as 
they have proved the basis of sound experience. 

It is perhaps desirable to indicate the sense in which the term 
industrial education is here used. In recent discussions the terms 
'technical education," "scientific education," " industrial education," 
•' manual training," etc., frequentl}^ occur, and it is doubtful wliether a 
clear distinction as to the field they cover is alwaj^s held in mind by 
those using them. It is perhaps impossible that such a distinction 
should be made in a way to meet the approval of all educators, but 



4 Eeport of the 

the view upon which the Commission has proceeded, which has given 
direction aLd coloring to all its investigations, and which has embodied 
itself in the conclusions presented in this report, may be stated sub- 
stantially as follows : 

Scientific education may be regarded, in one view, as almost ex- 
clusively theoretical ; in another, as almost exclusively practical; — this 
being the familiar distinction between pure and applied science. But 
since no branch of science can be effectively taught, except as to its 
theory, without the aids of the laboratory and the actual manipula- 
tion of materials and apparatus, all scientific instruction comes to have, 
almost of necessity, a semi-technical cast. If carried one step farther, 
and conducted with reference to its general applications in industry, it 
becomes a general technical instruction ; if applied to specific indus- 
tries, it becomes special technical or technological instruction. 

Technical instruction, therefore, may be regarded as the teaching of 
science with specific reference to its applications in the various forms 
of industry, including also a knowledge of the materials and the prac 
tical processes employed in them ; and the term has come to be ap- 
plied almost if not quite universally, to the higher ranges of such in- 
struction. 

Industrial education does not difi'er from general technical educa- 
tion except that the term may properly be considered applicable to 
the lower ranges instead of the higher ; and, while no line of demarca- 
tion between the two can be sharply drawn, the distinction here made 
may serve to indicate with sufficient accuracy the respective fields 
covered by each. 

Manual training in the strict sense of the term, would mean simply 
the training of the hand ; but as currently used with reference to 
education, the words indicate such employment of the hand as will, 
at the same time, train the eye to accuracy and the mind to attention. 
The scientific element, or the teaching of science pure and simple, is 
not necessarily involved in the expression. As, however, pure science 
can scarcely be taught without looking somewhat toward it^s applica- 
tions, so manual training cannot be made an efi'ective educational pro- 
cess except by constant reference to the broad foundation in the 
mathematical, physical and natural sciences upon which it rests. 

The Commission has deemed that for its purposes the term "Indus- 
trial Education " as used in the resolution authorizing its appointment, 
was ample and expressive. It involves both the idea of manual train- 
ing with reference to its industrial applications, and the idea of 
educational or intellectual training which, with reference to in- 
dustries, must be largely on the scientific side. Industrial education, 
therefore, we understand and use as meaning i^vimsiriiy edueatio7i ; 
education with reference to practical life, but still education ; the 
training of the hand, the eye and the brain to work in unison; the 
training of the whole child in such a way that his inward powers may 



Industrial Education Commission. 5 

act effectively through fit instruments upon his external surroundings, 
and receive from them in turn accurate and informing impressions. 

It is not the purpose of the Commission to appear as a critic, much 
less an opponent of the public school system as it now exists. Its 
favorable influence in the development of American character and 
American institutions can scarcely be overestimated. Beginning with 
the beginnings of our national life, and growing with its growth, it 
has wrought itself into the very fiber of our social and political struc- 
ture, and has proved for the great mass of our people a means of up- 
lifting and advancement second to no other agency. But the conditions 
out of which the system grew have so largely changed, that some 
modification in its methods, though not in its essential spirit, is abso- 
lutely necessary. The widespread introduction of scientific knowl- 
edge and scientific methods into all the industrial processes of the day, 
makes it necessary that the great mass of our children, who leave 
school at the age of fourteen or sixteen — and under, if they are not to 
be launched unprepared into an unknown world, must acquire such 
training in the public school as will give them at least some element- 
ary knowledge of the facts and the forces with which they will be 
brought face to face as soon as the doors of the school house close be- 
hind them. 

The fact should be frankly recognized and emphasized that our 
better public schools have, for the lasftwenty-five years, been moving 
in this direction, and have made immense advancement; but it is still 
true to a far greater extent than it ought to be that their tendency is 
to educate boys and girls away from the ideas of practical, self-help- 
ful, industrial life rather than toward it. This fact has come to be 
widely recognized by thoughtful observers among ourselves, as we 
as by citizens of other countries who have made a study of our educa- 
tional system. One of our friendliest and most judicious critics, Mr. 
William Mather, of Manchester, in his report made to the Royal Com- 
mission on Technical Instruction, says : 

***** " Too large a class of youn^ people in America of both 
sexes are seeking pursuits not requiring manual labor. Their education, as given 
at present in the high schools and colleges, tends rather to unfit them for the active 
industries of life, in a country where the vast resources of nature are waiting for 
willing and trained hands to utilize them. The native-born American hates drud- 
gery ; and all the mechanical arts, when pursued without some knowledge of science 
to employ'' and interest the mind while the hands are active, are more or less drud- 
gery. The American boy, with his inborn ambition and natural ingenuiry, would 
cease to regard manual labour as drudgery if his hand and mind together were in- 
dustrially trained through the school period. He would then be led into industrial 
employments by choice, as the readiest means to climb to a higher position in lif e- 
*' It cannot be denied, however, that a widespread aptitude to learn and under- 
stand, has been implanted by the public schools of America. A high degree of self 
respect marks the w^orkmen who have passed through the schools, and to those ' who 
have it in them,' the education even of the grammar school, closing at fourteen to 
fifteen years old, enables self-improvement to be continued by boys of talent and 
energy, without great difficulty, even through private study." 



6 Report of the 

These and similar observations might be quoted from many sources, 
and the criticism which they emphasize would, until within a very 
few years, have been equally applicable in every other country which 
maintains a system of general education. 

The defect being everywhere felt, a remedy has been everywhere 
sought. The advances in scientific knowledge within the present cen- 
tury have not been more remarkable than the change in educatioi al 
methods resulting from them. The effort has been not merely to 
make use of the new material for education brought Ibrward by the 
discoveries of science, nor merely to inculcate the scientific method in 
the use of this material, but to combine these two elements of training 
with tlie application of both material and method to the new condi- 
tions of social and industrial life. Either might have been done with- 
out the other; but the attempt to conduct educational processes in 
such a way as to apply scientific discovery to actual life, has resulted 
both in carrying the educational spirit forward into industrial pur- 
suits, and in bringing the active, alert and vigorous industrial spirit 
into the metliods of education. The general result has been a great 
and far-reaching educational movement within the last fifty years, 
surpassed — if equaled — by no similar movement in the history of 
mankind. Every civilized country, and the best minds in every 
country, have thought it worth while to encourage, foster and pro- 
mote this movement. Technical education, in some one or other of 
its many forms, has come to be established in every country of the 
civilized world ; but by an inversion of what would seem the natural 
and logical order, the beginning has in all cases been made at the lop 
rather than at the bottom of the system. 

Governments everywhere have considered it expedient to establish 
special institutions for the training of the higher and official claes, and 
even in countries where classes are less distinctly recognized, the 
more advanced forms of technical instruction have received the earliest 
attention. Within the last few years, however, a notable movement 
has set in for the diffusion of scientific and technical instruction among 
the masses of the people. In Sweden, Finland, Switzerland and France 
such instruction is already widespread. France especially has made 
it the object of the government's most solicitious care for the last 
nineteen years. Other countries have made and are still making 
prooaising beginnings in the same direction. 

Russia has no system of public education, but some of her institu- 
tions of technical instruction are among the best in the world. 

The excellence and extent of the German and Austrian systems are 
well known. 

Great Britain has for forty years past maintained a splendid system 
of general art education, and is now moving slowly but surely and 
vigorously in the direction of technical and industrial education. 
Several colleges, like Owens College at Manchester, the Yorkshire 



Industeial Education Commission. 7 

College at Leeds, University College at Liverpool, and others, have 
already introduced it; the London (Finsbury) Technical College is car- 
rying it on in the most successful manner, under the intelligent and 
efficient direction of Professor Thompson ; a national association for the 
promotion of technical education has within a year past been formed, 
with Lord Hartington at the head, and other eminent public men among 
its active managers ; the London School Board has introduced manual 
training into some of its schools within the last twelve months, and, 
through the newly established institution known as The City and 
Guilds of London Institute, under the management of Sir Philip 
Magnus, a systematic propaganda of the new ideas and methods is 
being actively carried on. At the last two sessions of Parliament a 
bill has been introduced for the promotion of technical education, but 
has failed each time; in the first instance because the measure was 
unsatisfactory to its most intelligent friends, and in the second, for 
want of time. But there is no doubt of the enactment at no distant 
day of some comprehensive scheme of this kind. • 

In the year 1881 the British government appointed a Royal Com- 
mission on Technical Instruction, the members of which, in a body or 
singly, visited most of the leading countries of Europe, and made 
most extensive and thorough inquiries into the state of technical in- 
struction of all grades therein ; and their report, embodying the re- 
sults of inquiries and observations thus made, is a most valuable col- 
lection of material not elsewhere so easily accessible. This report, 
selections from which will be found in the appendix, presents the 
views of eminent educators and of men engaged in industrial pursuits, 
either as managers, foremen or proprietors, and presents them not 
simply with reference to the educational value of technical instruc- 
tion, but even more with reference to its value as a factor in indus- 
trial life.* 

The movement in the same direction in the United States has not 
been less marked or important. It may be said to have taken defi- 
nite form in 1862, in the passage by Congress of the well-known land- 
grant act. This measure has proved of great and far-reaching im- 
portance; and, whatever regrets may be felt that it has not in all 
cases fully met the expectations of its original promotors, it has been 
fruitful of untold benefit to the cause of scientific and technical edu- 
cation throughout the United States. It provided for the establish- 
ment, in every State and Territory which should accept its provisions, 
of at least one college where '' the leading object " should be '' to teach 
such branches of learning as ar^ related to agriculture and the me- 

*Tlie foregoing statements take no account of tlie vast number of trade schools, 
evening classes, mechanics' institutes, and similar agencies for giving specitic tech- 
nical instruction to apprentices and others actually employed in trades. These are 
to be found in nearly every important industrial centre in Europe, and are exerting 
in the aggregate an immense influence for good. But they can scarcely be classed 
as educational institutions, in the proper sense of the word. 



8 Report of the 

chanic arts, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and 
including military tactics." 

Unfortunately, from an educational point of view, the grant of pub- 
lic lands in support of this measure (30,000 acres for each Senator 
and Representative in Congress) was proportioned on a basis which 
had no relation to the educational needs of the respective States. 
The smaller and newer States, which needed most, received least; 
and, while this inequality has been in many cases rectified by the 
action of the State governments, the original disadvantage has never 
fully disappeared. Notwithstanding all drawbacks, however, the re- 
sult has been that the National initiative, supplemented by the action 
of the States and of individuals, has resulted in establishing a large 
number of vigorous, progressive and successful institutions, which 
have, for the first time in the history of the United States, made the 
teaching of science in its applications their leading object, without ex- 
cluding such other branches of learning as are specially adapted to 
give* force and refinement to the intellect. Many of these institu- 
tions have established and have now in successful operation depart- 
ments of instruction in the mechanic arts and mechanical engineering 
in all their varied branches. Some of these institutions are directly 
connected with the State system of public schools, and they have 
thus exercised an important influence in difi"using the principles of an 
education at once liberal and practical throughout the entire body. 
It is impossible to say how far their influence has directly affected the 
older classical college^, or how far both have been carried along by a 
general movement stronger than either; but certain it is, that since 
their establishment the methods of instruction in the older colleges 
have been greatly modified, and the subject matter of their curric- 
ulum greatly extended by the introduction of scientific studies. 

Not the least important service conferred upon the people of the 
country by the act of Congress just mentioned, has been the creation 
of a large body of men engaged in teaching and popularizing modern 
science, and especially manual training in connection with agricul- 
ture and the mechanic arts. Their infiuence in this respect has al- 
ready been widely felt and promises to be still more so in the new 
movement for popularizing manual training as a part of public school 
instruction. 

The latter movement is now under way to an extent and with a force 
which is probably not appreciated by any who liave not given special 
attention to the subject. It began about ten years ago with the estab- 
lishment of the St. Louis Manual Training School. Since that time, 
but particularly within the last five years, it has spread ver}^ rapidly, 
until it has come to be to-day a factor of the greatest importance in 
public education in many parts of the country. An account of the 
most important institutions of this kind in the United States will be 
ound in the appendix. It is enough for our present purpose to ob- 



IsDUSTRiAL Education Commission. 9 

serve that they have taken the form either of special institutions, 
privately supported, or of institutions forming a branch of the general 
school system of the town or city in which they are pstablished, or of a 
special course in connection with one or more schools. 

What now, is the purpose and meaning of this movement? What 
is manual training in the public schools? What is it designed to 
accomplish ? By what methods is it carried on? What is its relation 
to established courses, what are its results thus far, and to what ex- 
tent is it demanded or justified by public opinion ? Upon these points 
we proceed to give the conclusions reached by our own inquiries, with 
the testimony of many competent observers. 

As has been already indicated, manual training does not mean 
simply the use of the hand, nor does it mean simply the training of 
the hand for the sake of the hand, or for the sake of the productive 
skill which that training gives. It is a training of the hand for the 
purpose of securing at the same time and primarily, the training of 
the mind, through the senses of touch and perception. The hand can- 
not be trained to accurate methods without at the same time holding 
the eye to accurate observation; and hand and eye cannot be trained 
to accurate observation and manipulation without at the same time 
exercising the mental faculties of attention, comparison, reflection 
and judgment. The use of tools upon material substances develops 
this entire circle of faculties ; develops them, in such mutual relation 
that each supports and is supported by the others. It is surprising to 
see the readiness with which children even as young as seven or eight 
years enter into the spirit of this training, and find delight in the exer- 
cise of the constructive faculty, which almost everywhere among chil- 
dren manifests itself when the opportunity is given. 

But mere work of this kind, however varied, would tend to become 
monotonous, and run into routine. Accordingly the manual training 
S! liools introduce into their curriculum the same educational studies as 
are found in other schools, and aim thus to develop the intellectual 
faculties not less than the physical. In the same way shop work, 
when introduced as a part of the prescribed courseof any public school, 
is not allowed to diminish the amount of attention given to other 
studies; and it is found that the school time which would thus at first 
sight appear to be lost to those studies, is fully made up, and often 
more than made up, by the increased freshness, aptitude, and men- 
tal alertness which the pupil acquires from his manual exercises. 
The testimony of experienced observers is absolutely uniform, that 
boys who receive tliis double training are in no respect losers in their 
intellectual studies by reason of the time spent in the work shop, but 
are in many, if not a majority, of cases absolute gainers. 

The principal of the Boston High School reporting upon the experi- 
ment of a class in manual instruction, says : 

"It was thought that taking a part of the class away from its regu- 



10 Report of the 

lar school work would result in more or less detriment to its progress 
in the prescribed studies. Here and there a complaint was made by 
the teacher, of some second-class boy, that he was not doing his work 
well in his own room ; but the pupil, in every case, was so anxious to 
remain in the 'carpenter's class' that a word or two of warning was 
sufficient to bring his performance up to a standard again. The re- 
salt, so far as the first class is concerned, has been tabulated, and will 
be found in the paper marked '0.' On an examination of this paper 
it will be seen that no loy fell lelow the required per cent.^ and each 
hoy received Ms diploma. I consider that the results go far to prove 
that manual training is so great a relief to the iteration of school work 
that it is a positive heneft rather than a detriment to the course in the 
other studies?^ 

The report of the St. Louis Manual Training School for 1887-8 says : 

''in a manual training school properly so called, no attempt is made 
to cultivate dexterity at the expense of thought. No mere sleight of 
hand is aimed at, nor is muscular exercise of itself held to be of edu- 
cational value. An exercise whether with tools or with books is valu- 
able only in proportion to the demand it makes upon the mind for in- 
telligent, thoughtful work. In the school shop the stage of mechan- 
ical habit is never reached. The only habit actually acquired is that 
of thinking. No blow is struck, no line drawn, no motion regulated, 
from muscular habit. The quality of every act springs from the con- 
scious will accompanied by a definite act of judgment. Such a limited 
training cannot, of course, produce a high degree of manual skill." 

To the same efi'ect the second annual report of the Toledo Manual 
Training School says : 

"In manual education, the desired end is the acquirement of skill 
in the use of tools and materials, and not the production of specific ar- 
ticles ; hence we abstract all the mechanical processes and manual 
arts and typical tools of the trades and occupations of men, arrange a 
systematic course of instruction in the same, and then incorporate it 
into our system of education. Thus, without teaching any one trade, 
we teach the essential mechanical principles of all." 

The course of study pursued in any of the schools described in the 
appendix, will sufficiently exhibit the manner of combining these 
branches of instruction and exercises, and need not be quoted here. 
It may be said in general, that the special manual training schools aim 
to give the full equivalent of an ordinary high school education, with 
the additional of a continuous course in drawing and shop work 
through the entire three years ; bat it should be especially observed 
that all such schools resolutely disclaim a purpose to teach trades, but 
insist, rather, upon teaching the principles and processes underlying 
all trades. While the shop exercises are found to have a highly ben- 
eficial influence physically, their main purpose and their main result 
is intellectual ; while they give the boy or girl knowledge and skill in 



Industrial Education Commission. 11 

the use of the hand, they give greater facility and skill in the use of 
the thinking faculty. This result is greatly aided by the introduction 
of drawing and design into all manual training courses. Besides form- 
ing a most important connecting link between the school and practi- 
cal industries, drawing has an educational val ae which is universal in its 
character. It developes closeness of observation, accuracy of per- 
ception, vividness of imagination, quickness of eye, facility of hand, 
care and judgment in expression. It cultivates a knowledge of rela- 
tions, of fittingness and adaptation, all useful in the general duties of 
life, and which render their possessor either better producers or better 
able to appreciate the products of labor into which the element of de- 
sign enter.. There are few States in the Union in which the subject 
of industrial drawing is so important as in Pennsylvania. 

Nearly all eminent thinkers are agreed, in theory at least, that ed- 
ucation should proceed from the simple to the complex ; from the con- 
crete to the abstract; from things to the representatives, or ideas of 
things. As Rousseau says, " The child should first learn the things 
nearest to him, then those that are farther and farther off." There 
would seem to be no room to doubt that a systematic course of edu- 
cation, conducted upon this principle, would result in a symmetrical 
and well-compacted development of the child's mental and physical 
being, which would fit him for the duties of practical life far more ef- 
fectively than any one-sided training, however excellent, could possibly 
do. By dealing with the facts, the forces, the laws and the materials of 
the world about him, the pupil soon learns that he can become their 
master only by studying their nature and obeying their laws. He 
thus acquires j^n intellectual habit of docility, of teachableness, of 
patience and of attention to detail which is of incalculable advantage 
to him as a learner, and which falls directly in line with his growing 
experience of the discipline of actual life. He becomes a learner that 
he may rule, and he thus conies in his early years to look upon the fixed 
facts of existence from the point of view from which real life will pre- 
sent itself to him a little later. He learns to deal with real problems 
in the precise manner in which lie must deal with similar problems 
on a larger scale when he comes presently to meet the experiences of 
responsible life. He learns the only way of making life successful. 
It is upon this ground that the advocates of manual training base 
their claims. 

Another consideration of the very highest importance has been 
already alluded to. The period of school-life is for most children the 
formative period. Their tastes, their aptitudes, their tendencies then 
take shape and determine very largely the direction of their future 
career. If. during this critical period, they learn to look upon labor 
not only as honorable, but as the natural concern of men; if, beyond 
that, their labor is, at every step, connected with a knowledge of the 
principles underlying it, so that manual employment goes hand in 



12 Report of the 

hand with intelligence, the effect upon the child's mental attitude in 
his outlook towards life cannot fail to be decisive. As Dr. W. T. Bar- 
nard says [Report, p. 76] : 

" By giving more attention to scientific instruction, and to the training of the hand 
and eye, our public sthools would not only do much towards meeting the present 
requirements of industry, but the reaction upon the schools themselves would be 
highly beneficial, and intellectual training would assume a high value in all grades 
of society. Teach the boys in our public schools that to be a carpenter, a machinist, 
or a molder, is just as honorable, requires no less skill, and may be more profitable, 
than to be a clerk, or a doctor, or a lawj^er, and there will be huudreds of qualified 
applicants for apprenticeship in our best shops, and soon educated labor will take 
the place of uneducated labor, and intelligent mechanics will displace those who re- 
fuse to learn more than the}^ already know. But as matters now stand, with scarcely 
any facilities in our school system for even the most elementary technical training, 
few boys who leave the higher grades of our schools have any disposition to enter a 
worksliop as apprentices ; not because they have no mechanical genius or capacity 
for artisanship (for oftentimes their bent of mind is more in the direction of such 
pursuits than otherwise), but because their education has been such as to prejudice 
them against pursuits requiring manual labor, and to predispose them towards some 
other sphere of activity which they look upon as more dignified, and as giving them 
a higher social standing." 

The same view is expressed in the following brief paragraphs from 
the report made by Messrs. Sluys and Van Kalken to the Belgian 
Minister of Public Instruction : 

" We insist upon the importance of this principle because in many civilized coun- 
tries many children of workmen and of peasants show a strong tendency to despise 
manual labor, aspire to abandon the condition of their parents, and to embrace occu- 
X)ations which they consider far superior, such as those of emploj'Ss in commercial 
houses or in public offices, 

" By organizing a serious teaching of manual work in the school of the people, and 
by excluding severely from the series of occupations those which have no other aim 
than the gratification of taste or luxur3% these children will be inspired with a re- 
pect and taste for the useful occupations which their parents followed. 
' "We think that the principle above expressed should be applied even in schools 
attended by children of well-to-do families. They have only too much occasion, in 
the condition in which they live, to employ themselves with trifling things, and to 
attach to them an importance which they do not rightfully merit. By requiring 
them to perform labors really useful, we should counteract, to some extent, the false 
effects of a domestic education often badlj^ directed." 

We are far from endorsing the possible suggestion in the above ex- 
tract that a child should necessarily follow a given occupation merely 
because his parents have done so; but, if it is not a dishonorable one^ 
respect for them forbids that he should be deliberately taught to look 
upon it with contempt or dislike. He should be so taught in the school 
that he will not despise labor, however humble, but will merely be 
helped in his choice of the kind of labor for which he is best fitted. 
This being done, we may safely trust to the inlluence of surroundings 
and of natural aptitudes to determine his career in the direction most 
conducive to his own welfare and that of society. 

Not less important than the influence of manual training and in- 
dustrial education upon the child himself, is its bearing upon the pro- 
gress of industry. We cannot do better upon this point than to quote 
the following additional paragraphs from Dr. Barnard's report [p. 15] : 



Industrial Education Commission. 13 

"In short, it is the testimony of all who have studied tlie subject that technical 
schools, when rightly directed, give wonderful impulses to industrial pursuits by 
promoting scientific investigation and methods. Although, at first, this influence 
afiects only those who attend the classes, it soon makes itself felt throughout the en- 
tire body of workmen of the community to which the school belongs, and' the in. 
creased interest in scientific subjects on the part of emploj^^s, thus developed, in 
turn reacts to the pecuniary advantage of their employers ; because mechanics who 
have been trained in the scientific principles that underlie their handicrafts are 
thereby enabled to understand the technical publications affecting their trades, and 
to utilize new inventions and improved methods of work ; while men uneducated 
in the rudiments of science ignore such sources of knowledge, and, quite naturally, 
oppose all improvements as innovations calculated to work injury to the laboring 
classes. Cultivate a laboring man's intelligence to a point where it recognizes im- 
provements and comprehends their nature ; his opposition ceases, and he Avill him- 
self likely invent improved processes, which will inure to his employer's benefit. 

" Technical education has been the means of attracting capital not only to specific 
localities, but to countries. Indisputable evidence of this is found in Switzerland, 
and notably in Zurich, the manufacturing town above cited. For years a technical 
school has been conducted in this toM^n at government expense, and when recently 
the Federal Council was disposed to lessen the usual grant for its support, the man- 
ufacturers showed, by undeniable evidence, that this single institution had in a few 
years been the means of bringing capital to the country to the extent of millions of 
pounds sterling." 

Judge MacArthur, in his valuable book on *' Education in its Rela- 
tion to Industry," strongly supports this view: 

"To complete successfully with foreign work we must have a class of artisans as 
highly cultivated in workmanship as those we import from over the sea, and this 
skill can be acquired only by practice in their respective handicrafts. It is true that 
with us applied science and mechanical powers have superseded, in a great measure, 
the burden of heavy labor ; but the quick eye, the expert hand and the acute taste 
can never be dispensed with in the manual processes of the arts and manufactures. 
To meet this imperative demand for first-class workmen, without submitting to the 
exactions and competition of foreign work, we must educate the constructive ability 
of our youth during the period of life which is now devoted to study alone. We 
have developed, in a high degree, the art of manufacture, but we are nearly without 
any American artisans in the trades connected with design, and are consequently 
deprived of the acknoAvledged sharpness and ingenuity of our countrj^men in help- 
ing on American industries. This wide and remunerative field of labor is left to be 
^ jcupied by partly educated and skilled foreigners. We have excellent schools for 
all sorts of instruction in the essentials of mathematics, historj', literature and phi- 
losophy, but we fit nobody with either skill or knowledge in any particular habit of 
industry. 

"The period seems to have arrived when institutions of industrial science and ed- 
ucation can no longer be postpoi:ied in our country, and when they must be tried on 
as extensive a scale as those witnessed abroad. There seems no reason why the ed- 
ucational system should not be adapted to the tradesman, the artisan and the man- 
ufacturer, as well as to the more pedantic professions, in Avliich men are so thoroughly 
trained. The reform of our taste has commenced by the purifying influence which 
proceeds from, and which will gradually make its way thrjugh, the community 
from the universal teaching of drawing. An appeal must now be made in behalf of 
teaching the processes of production, as well as the principles which shall guide the 
Avork. The use of tools and machinery does not come by intuition, and industrial 
knowledge ought to include instruction in their use." 

It is true that many employers still prefer workmen who have been 
trained as apprentices from their earliest years ; but it is also true 
that the system of trade apprenticeship is practically obsolete through- 



14: Repoet of the 

out the civilized world. Every highly organized industrial nation has 
come to recognize the fact that it can excel in the sharp race of mod- 
ern competition, only by maintaining superior skill, economy and 
efficiency in its productive processes ; and the conclusion is fast gain- 
ing acceptance that this result can only be secured by the better 
training of its workmen and the closer application of scientific prin- 
ciples and methods. The margin of profit in all established lines of 
industry is so small, that the producer who wishes to attract and hold 
the market, must do it either by uaderselling his competitors with 
the same article, through superior cheapness of production, or by in- 
troducing iuto his product some element of form or substance which 
others do not possess. This consideration is so obvious as not to re- 
quire extended argument; but abundant testimony relating to it will 
be found in the appendix, in the extracts from the reports of the 
British commission. 

One of the most striking facts in the present industrial condition of 
nearly every European country, as well as the United States and sev- 
eral countries in South America, is the extensive employment of 
Germans in all positions requiring scientific and technical knowledge. 
It is, in a scientific and industrial sense, a veritable ^' Teutonic inva- 
sion," and it is the direct result of the long-continued, intelligent 
and unremitting efforts of the German governments to provide for 
their people the best possible technical instruction. But their gen- 
eral school system is still defective on the practical side. The English, 
the French and the people of the United States excel the Germans in 
mental aptitude and in adaptability to the varying requirements of 
circumstances. The educated German works on well-considered and 
secure lines; but he works by routine. The Frenchman, the English- 
man and the American follow a less rigorous method, but work with 
more facility, and adopt changes more easily. An in teresting state- 
ment on this point is given in a private letter to a member of the 
Commission, from a gentleman who has resided several years in 
Europe, and has been a close observer of social and economic move- 
ments: 

"Bonn, November 18, 1888. 
"Yesterday I went Avith one of the professors of'national economy, with six or 
eight of his students, to visit a large establishment for the manufacture of pottery 
employing 700 hands, and sending its wares in large quantities to both England and 
the United States. Its clays are brought from England and a large part of its Avares 
are sent back to England — a nut for English free trade .to crack by and by. The 
foreman or superintendent who was sent by the proprietor to accompany our party, 
is an Englishman, and he surprised me with the statement that the British technical 
education is better than the German, and that the German potteries and porcelain 
manufactoi'ies send to England for superintendents. I told him of the different 
opinion prevailing in London last winter. He replied he knew the British opinion, 
but said it is a mistake. The German polytechnic schools teach science, and their 
men excel the English in science, but they get no practice, and when they finish 
their studies at 19 or 20 years of age they will not work, and are too old to begin at 
the bottom and learn the practice thoroughly. The English student is a Avorkman 



Industrial Education Commission. 15 

who labors through the day and goes to the night classes of South Kensington or the 
City of London College or elsewhere, and masters the science at the same time he is 
learning the art. So when a practical superintendent is wanted the Englishman is 
sent for. Such he said was his own history. Whether it is true in other than i)ot- 
tery maniifaccures he did not say. The thing is worth considering. Per contra, the 
proprietor told us that the training of the boys and girls in drawing, etc., in the 
Tolks-schule here gave him'much cheaper decorators, of whom he employs 200, than 
the English get. Most of the English decorators and porcelain painters are artists 
requiring high wages ; in this establishment we saw many boys and girls of 14 and 
15 at work painting or filling out with colors the printed designs. So Germany is 
still ahead in cheapness and undersells England in the Engtish markets." 

No one will question that American youth should receive in the 
public schools the best preparation for life which the state of knowl- 
edge allows. The unprecedented growth of our population ; its rapid 
concentration in towns and cities; the profound changes in our social 
and industrial condition which are going on, and the enormously in- 
creased facilities for intercourse with other nations have laid upon 
the present generation — will lay upon each succeeding generation — 
burdens and responsibilities which were undreamed of fifty years ago. 
We are participants in a world-wide competition, and if our youth are 
to fill the measure of their duty and of their privilege, they must be 
equipped with every resource which education can supply. We may 
quote, without necessarily approving every expression, the following 
paragraph from a speech delivered in the United States House of Rep- 
resentatives, by the Hon. D. J. Morrell, of this State ! 

"The American workingman must live in a house, not a hut; he 
must wear decent clothes and eat wholesome and nourishing food. 
He is an integral part of the municipality, the State and the nation ; 
subject to no fetters of class or caste ; neither pauper nor peasant, nor 
serf, but a free American citizen. He has the ballot, and if it were 
possible, it would be dangerous to degrade him. The country stands 
pledged to give him education, political power and a higher form 
of life than foreign nations accord to their laborers, and he must be 
sustained by higher rates of wages than those of Europe. Our indus- 
tries operated by American citizens, must be freed from foreign inter- 
ference and organize into a distinct American system, which will 
exact some temporary sacrifices, but result in general prospeiity and 
true national independence. In maintaining diversified industries 
we utilize every talent, provide a field for every capacity, and bind 
together the whole people in mutual dependence and support, assur- 
ing the strength and security of our republic." 

Mr. Mather, of Manchester, who has been already quoted, makes the 
following pertinent suggestions bearing upon this point : 

"As jow know, your country does possess already a considerable number of very 
remarkable technical schools, which certainly are not surpassed hy any school in 
Europe. They are schools, hewever, that are not available for the working classes, 
as those of Germany, France and Switzerland, and what little we have done in Eng- 
land. They belong to a higher rank in society, and therefore you have not felt them 
in your ordinary life. But for the training of skilful managers, foremen, and even 



16 Report of the 

proprietors of large industries, about a dozen of the schools and colleges of this 
country are not surpassed by anything in Europe. 

******* •Sfr^'Sf** 

"You seem to have a wide-spread— almost universal — opportunity for all the peo- 
ple here to get a technical and scientific education. All that you want is a shuffling 
of the cards to alter the curricula of the various institutions. There is more spent in 
this country for education than in any other country in the world — both I think by 
private beneficent individuals who have left money for certain colleges and univer- 
sities, and, of course, by the generosity of your towns and cities in the public school 
system — that is a fact of world-wide notoriety. I do not think the working classes 
here have anything at all to complain of in regard to education, except that it does 
not have a strong enough and close enough relation to the industries which the 
wosking classes pursue." 

The only real question is, whether manual training as introduced 
in so many places, is a sure means of obtaining the desired result. 
On this point opinions Avill naturally differ; but we are compelled to 
say that, having approached the consideration of the subject with the 
single purpose of ascertaining and stating " the truth, the whole truth, 
and nothing but the truth," the facts of experience and the testimony 
of thoughtful observers which have come under our notice point with 
almost absolute unanimity in one direction. We are persuaded that 
manual training in the public schools supplies a deeply felt need ; 
that its processes have become well enough established to enable any 
community to enter upon it intelligently and successfully; that it 
involves no great expense or difficulty; that it should be introduced 
as rapidly as possible into every grade, beginning with kindergarten 
work ; and that it promises the richest results to the great body of our 
people, physically, intellectually and morally. 

It will not diminish the vigor and efficiency of our public schools as 
they now exist, but^will increase both ; it will not divert our children 
away from industrial pursuits, but direct them towards them ; it will 
not result in the teaching of trad.es by the public schools, but will train 
the body of youth, intelligently prepared to enter upon all trades ; 
it will not interfere with the highest intellectual training of those who 
are designed for professional pursuits, but will give a body of common 
knowledge and common skill which will be of incalculable value to 
the students of all professions ; it will not lower the standard of in- 
struction, but will elevate it; and, apart from its influence on the 
schools, it will help to give dignity and efficiency to every form of 
useful labor. We cannot better conclude our observations upon this 
point than by the following quotation from a valuable report upon 
this subject issued by Commissioner Eaton, lately of the United States 
Bureau of Education : 

" The manufacturer is aided bj' industrial education through th3 improvement of 
his products. His success depends upon the demand for his goods at reasonable 
prices. This demand is regulated by the needs of customers. They ask for dura- 
bility of material, attractiveness of design and excellence of workmanship in what- 
ever they purchase for permanent use. Manufacturers' business improves as they 
become possessed of tliese and similar qualities, which can be economically secured 
only by the application of technical knowledge. Durabilit}^ arises from excellence 



iNDrsTRiAL Education Commission. 17 

of raw material, and is retained by the selection of the right processes by which to 
convert it into the state in which it finally appears. The quality of raw material is 
not unfrequently to be determined by chemical tests, and many of the processes of 
its manufacture are regulated by chemical principles. The science Avhich guides in 
the determination of tliese processes must be the one which will lead to tlieir im- 
provement and perfection. Hence courses in chemistry are established in our poly- 
technic schools, as well as in colleges of agriculture (to which science chemistry 
makes liberal contribution), and in schools of mining and metallurgy. For a simi- 
lar purpose engineers are taught to determine the strength of materials used in 
building railroads and bridges, houses and machines. Investigations in the domain 
of phj^sics and chemistry have frequently taught the skilful application of new and 
serviceable agents to tlie production of labor. Men thus taught have laid out our 
railways, opened our mines, started and improved our manufactories and built our 
houses. They have aided in increasing our industries 35 per cent in the last decade 
and in compelling an English confession that ' the United States will probably pass 
us in the ensuing decade' in the value of her industries. 

" The elevation of the working classes is an ine^^table result of educating them in 
industries. The direct effect upon the intellect is great and beneficial. The imme- 
diate moral influence is of the best, A manly feeling is awakened and kept alive by 
the consciousness of power and skill to do. An incentive to frugality and enterprise 
is set forth. It has been laid down as a rule by Prof. Edward Atkinson that — 

" 'Other things being equal, high wages, coupled with low cost, are the necessary 
result of the most intelligent application of machinery by the arts, provided the edu- 
cation of the operative keeps pace with the improvement of the machinery.' 

" Industrial education dignifies labor as well as opens doors to its skilful and remu- 
nerative performance. If labor has a noble end and purpose, if it employs intellect, 
if it abundantly rewards its servants, then it is worthy to be crowned." 

Success of the System. 

We have already said, but we bep; leave to repeat, that the views 
here presented by the Commissioa are such — and such only — as have 
been sustained by ample experience. Wherever an attempt has been 
made to introduce manual training into the public schools — whether 
in a special school, as in Philadelphia, or in the general system as in 
New York, New Haven and many other places, — whether it has been 
supported by appropriations from the municipal treasury, or by pri- 
vate contributions of public-spirited citizens, the result has been the 
same : teachers, pupils and parents vie with each other in their testi- 
mony to its healthful and beneficial influence. We believe that no 
instance can be found where the work, having once been begun by 
the proper authorities, has been allowed to stop or to diminish ; but, 
on the contrary, in nearly if not quite every case where even a small 
and tentative beginning has been made, with the least possible expen- 
diture of money, the work has been increased with the growing ap- 
proval and confidence of the entire community. Perhaps the most 
striking instance of the rapid extension of the system in the face of 
doubt and hesitancy at the beginning, but in obedience to the growing 
demands of public sentiment, is that of New York city. In accord- 
ance with the recommendations of a committee, the Board of Edu- 
cation provided for the beginning of such training in a few of the 
grammar and primary schools of the city, in February, 1888. The 
2 Ed. Com. 



18 Report of the 

interest of the pupils and of parents in the work increased so rapidly 
that it was extended, on the application of the local school trustees, 
into a lar^e additional number of schools, until, in November of the 
same year, nearly ten thousand children were receiving that form of 
instruction. 

Manual Training in Rural Schools. 

Thus far manual training has been introduced only in certain local- 
ities. No State has adopted a general system, applicable to all alike, 
and it is obvious that the difficulties in the way of such a measure are 
very serious. The requirements of town schools and city schools do 
not greatly differ ; but between these and the rural school the dis- 
tance is very great. It is sometimes said that the boys and girls in the 
country schools have less need of this kind of instruction than those 
of town or city schools, for the reason that their daily employments 
about the farm or in the household give them a readiness in perform- 
ing common tasks which the less favored city boy seldom acquires : 
but while there is truth in this observation, it is also true that the 
range of such employments is comparatively limited, and that they 
are not generally so conducted as to cultivate habits of precision and 
carefulness in the performance of them. Systematic manual training 
would give to such boys and girls a variety of exercises and of skills, 
which only the favored few can otherwise acquire. We believe that 
the natural aptitude for such exercises, fostered as it is by their cir- 
cumstances, would produce even better practical results there than in 
schools of the other kind. The case of Sweden furnishes most inter- 
esting evidence of the ease and success with which such a system can 
be introduced into rural schools when it is once undertaken, and the 
manifold advantages resulting from it. But whatever may be the fact 
upon this point, it requires but a moment's reflection to see that the 
most serious obstacle to the introduction of such a system throughout 
the entire system of schools, is, at present, the lack of a sufficient 
number of properly trained teachers. The teacher who has been pre- 
pared to give instruction in intellectual studies only, is obviously un- 
able to give instruction in the principles and processes of manual ex- 
ercises of which he or she has no knowledge. On the other hand the 
most skilful workman, unless he has been specially trained for the 
purpose, is likely to lack in the teaching capacity, and for this reason 
is unprepared to follow the systematic and progressive course of train- 
ing upon which the educational value of the exercises depends. 

The Need of Teachers. 

The Commission has no doubt therefore, that while it is entirely 
feasible to introduce manual training into the schools of our more fav- 
orable localities at once, it cannot be generally done, except under 
special circumstances, until the body of common school teachers in the 



Industrial Education Commission. 19 

State have received a special training for that purpose. For this rea- 
son we attach the very highest importance to the normal schools of 
this State with reference to this work. The experience of Sweden 
and of France show conclusively that a body of teachers can be very 
rapidly formed. Manual training is now given in nearly eight hun- 
dred schools in Sweden, and more than one hundred schools in the 
city of Paris alone have work shops attached. Normal schools and 
special courses have been established for the purpose of training 
teachers in the work. In Sweden it is found that an ordinary teacher, 
by spending six weeks in one year and five weeks in the following 
year in a special course of manual training, can acquire all that is 
necessary for teaching its elements successfully. 

The Normal Schools. 

The normal schools of this State are, under the provisions of the 
laws regulating and controlling them, an essential part of the public 
school system. The primary object of their organization was to fur- 
nish professionally qualified teachers for the public schools through- 
out the State. They are to be responsive to the necessities of the pub- 
lic schools, and as far as possible these necessities should be anticipated. 
A fair and liberal interpretation of the laws regulating the system of 
normal schools in the State, clearly authorizes and requires them to 
enter upon the work of preparing teachers for manual training in the 
public schools, whenever they shall become a part of the curriculum. 
To render these laws efi"ective in the hands of those charged with the 
conduct of the schools requires only a moderate additional expenditure 
which it is hoped the Commonwealth will now provide for. We be- 
lieve it would be easy and highly desirable to introduce this branch 
of preparation into every normal school of the State within the 
coming year, and that the beginning thus made in the preparation 
of a teaching body, would result in the very rapid diff'asion of the 
system throughout the State. 

Manual Training in Reformatories. 

There is another bearing of the system of manual training as a part 
of education, which seems to the Commission worthy of the most seri- 
ous consideration, namely, its relation to our reformatory institutions 
for youth of both sexes. 

The rapid increase of juvenile vice and crime in recent years has 
been very generally noticed and deplored. This evil, with its at- 
tendant evil, pauperism, is chiefly confined to our cities and larger 
towns. Here great numbers of children, especially those of poor 
families, are growing up in idleness and in ignorance of all manual 
occupations. They leave school at an early age, and complete their 
education on the street. There is nothing for them to do, and hence 
they do nothing. Criminal statistics show what the result is. Said a 



20 Report of the 

New York supreme judge not long since : " There is a large class — I 
was about to say a majority — of the populacion of New York city ^nd 
Brooklyn, who just live, and with whom the reariag of two more 
children means inevitably a boy for the penitentiary and a girl for the 
brothel.' These children are brought up in an atmosphere of vice 
and immorality, take up with crime at an early age, and so become 
the enemies of society and an expense to the State. The amount of 
pernicious literature devoured by them, is conclusive proof that illit- 
eracy can no longer be blamed for juvenile delinquencies. 

When it is remembered that at this time two-fifths of the popula- 
tion of the State reside in towns, the importance of this subject will 
be appreciated. In the opinion of the Commission, it is high time for 
the State to exert itself to find a check for this condition of things. 
To us there appears two remedies at hand : The first is manual training 
for the public schools; the second State Handicraft schools for all 
pauper, vagrant and homeless children. What such schools should 
be is well described in the reports of the inspectors of the Eastern 
Penitentiary, extracts from which accompany this report. They 
should be out in the open country, where each school should have at- 
tached to it a suitable amount of farm land. The buildings should be 
comfortable and commodious, properly fitted up and equipped for 
teaching useful handiwork, in addition to the branches of an ordinary 
English education. During the seasons of planting and harvesting, 
the boys should be engaged in the fields practically learniug the art 
of tilling the soil While it is not to be expected that these schools 
would be self-supporting, the expense to the Commonwealth if they 
were prudently managed, would not be large, after the first outlay for 
grounds and buildings. It should be distinctly understood, also, that 
they should be in no sense penal institutions; not even reformatories, 
but homes for the homeless, friendless and neglected; and the in- 
mates should have the benefit, as far as judicious expenditure, watch- 
ful oversight, and unrelaxing efi'ort could secure it, of the same edu- 
cational course of manual training in connection with the common 
English studies as we advocate for the public schools. 

This State has now two juvenile reformatories, the House of Refuge 
in Philadelphia, and the Pennsylvania Reform School at Morganza, 
both of which have been visited by members of the Commission. 
They are both excellent in their character. The former being in a 
large city, on a small plot of ground, and surrounded by high walls, 
cannot do all that should be done for the inmates of a reformatory. 
The latter is admirably located and well equipped to keep the youth 
committed to its care usefully and profitably employed. We are 
clearly convinced, however, that there should be more manual train- 
ing. The inmates of these schools should, above all others, be taught 
the value of manual skill. The class of people to which they belong 
look upon labor as drudgery. They see in it nothing but brute force. 



Industrial Education Commission. 21 

and so despise it and all who engage in it. Manual instruction of the 
proper kind, judiciously imparted, will go far toward correcting these 
erroneous views. The work now done is mostly for revenue, and is 
considered by the inmates as a kind of penal service to be endured 
while in the institution, but to be dropped forever when they leave it. 
We recommend, therefore, that the curriculum of instruction be some- 
what altered and enlarged. Some things might be dropped and others 
should be added. The inmates should contribute by their labor to the 
support of the establishment, but we should so adjust the working 
machinery that they would at ttje same time '^ earn and learn." The 
State would thus, as far as possible, help to break down the barriers 
which separate them from the youth of more favored circumstances, 
and open to them the hope of an honorable and self-supporting career, 
when once more thrown upon their own responsibility. 

Manual Training for Young Women. 

It will be observed that we have not spoken, except incidentally, of 
manual training for girls and young women. This omission has not 
arisen from any failure to appreciate that branch of the subject; but, 
in part, because some general lines of mechanical training have been 
found as well adapted to girls as to boys, and therefore required no 
separate treatment, and in part because we have thought it desirable 
to give more special attention to the subject than could be done in the 
body of the report, by gathering in the appendix such statements of 
fact and opinion as its importance requires. 

How to be Supported. 

With reference to the question whether manual training in its sev- 
eral grades, should be supported by State or local action, or by both, 
an experience of more than fifty years in this Commonwealth has 
shown that State and municipal authority have concurrently and har- 
moniously aided in the support and encouragement of the public school 
system, with results of the most gratifying character. A departure 
from this lule of action, would be experimental, and, as manual train- 
ing as we understand it should be judiciously introduced into and 
made a part of the common school curriculum, wherever and when- 
ever desired by the people, and voiced by them through the boards of 
directors, or controllers of public schools, our judgment is, that any 
increase of cost or expense resulting from its incorporation or intro- 
duction and maintenance in the public schools, should be borne by the 
State and local authorities jointly. 

The Kindergarten. 

Another branch of the subject which also might have been very 

properly treated at length is the course of training in primary schools 

commonly known as Kindergarten work. So much has been written 

upon this subject, however; so much intelligent labor has been de- 



22 Eepokt of the 

voted to the establishment and extension of it ; its principles and 
methods are so well understood, that we have not felt called upon to give 
it particular notice. But we desire to say that, in our judgment, no sys- 
tem of manual training for graded schools would be complete which 
did not begin with the Kindergarten exercises in the lower grades, 
proceeding by steps so graduated that the later exercises, more dis- 
tinctly known as manual training, should be the continuation and com- 
pletion of the earlier. 

Conclusion and Recommendations. 

If, in presenting this subject to the Legislature, we shall seem to 
have spoken strongly, it is because we are strongly convinced. We 
believe the time has come when this step forward in the development 
of our public school system ought to be taken. It is demanded by 
public opinion, it is easily within reach, it is full of promise for the 
future of the Commonwealth. It would be unwise, however, to an- 
ticipate that a change so thoroughgoing and far reaching as the one 
we advocate could be adopted as a wholeimmediately, or without pro- 
ducing more or less friction. Old ideas and fixed customs will natur- 
ally oppose it. Its advocates and friends will not unnaturally entertain 
extravagant expectations as to what may be accomplished by it. It 
should be remembered, however, by friends and opponents alike, that 
the present movements in this direction are largely tentative, and we 
must expect that any system now adopted will be modified in its de- 
tails as the result of increased experience. Such is the fate of all im- 
portant public measures. We are solicitous only that the foundation 
shall be rightly laid in accordance with sound principles. This being 
secured, we can anticipate without concern any changes that time and 
experience and reflection may suggest ; but these considerations should 
not be allowed to prevent the introduction now of such forms of train- 
ing as have proved easy to carry on and fruitful of good results. 

We beg leave, finally, to submit the following recommendations : 

1. That provision be made for the introduction of manual training 
into each State normal school, with a prescribed course of wood work 
for all students, iron work for young men, and sewing and cooking for 
young women, such courses to be subject to modification from time to 
time under proper authority, and to include an amount of wood work 
not exceeding what on an average could be accomplished in a single 
course of twelve weeks (or in two courses of six weeks each), if the 
work were so arranged as to give the principal portion of the time to 
this course of exercises ; the amount of iron work to be left optional 
with each institution. The work should be accompanied, at every 
step, with a progressive course in drawing. 

2. That an appropriation of five thousand dollars be made to each 
State normal school for the establishment of the proper plant, includ- 



Industrial Education Commission, 23 

ing, building, tools, equipment, etc., and a further sum of two thou- 
sand dollars annually for mainteance. 

3. That after April, 1890, no certificate or diploma be granted by i 
normal school to any pupil or graduate who shall not have completed 
at least the equivalent or a six weeks' course in wood work, as 
already mentioned. 

4. That for the purpose of prodding facilities for pursuing this 
course of training to teachers already employed, and who may wish to 
acquire it, provision be made for the maintenance at present of a 
short summer course in wood work and iron work at the State Col- 
lege where such instruction has been maintained for several years. 

4. That the State make a moderate annual appropriation, to be 
given on a uniform basis to such districts as shall undertake the es- 
tablishment of manual training in or in connection with their pub- 
lic schools, with specific provision, however, that such funds, whether 
provided by the State or the district, shall not be used for the teaching 
of specific trades. 

6. That provision be made for the introduction of drawing as a re- 
quired study in every school in the State, at the earliest possible day. 

7. That the law require every district in its subsequent erection or 
arrangement of buildings for school purposes, to make suitable pro- 
vision for a room or rooms to be used for the purposes of manual 
training. 

8. That provision be made or authorized for the grouping of rural 
schools, for the purposes of manual training, in such a way that, either 
the scholars from schools included in each group] may go in sections 
from each school to some one conveniently located, there to receive in- 
struction in manual training, or that a special instructor in manual 
training may be appointed, whose time shall be assigned to each 
school in turn. 

9- That for the purpose of securing direct encouragement, over- 
sight, guidance and inspection of all such w^ork in the State, a special 
Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction be appointed in the man- 
ner now provided by law, with a suiScient salary to secure service of 
the highest order, who shall be assigned by the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction to special duty as inspector of manual training, 

10. That provision be made for the immediate introduction of manual 
training, arranged upon an educational method and for educational 
ends, in connection with a prescribed course of elementary studies, 
into the reformatory institutions provided by the State for youth of 
both sexes; but that in such cases no attempt be made to teach spe- 
cific trades, except so far as such trades may be necessarily carried on 
for the purpose of supplying articles needed for consumption in the 
institutions themselves. 

11. If the Commission may venture to suggest a recommendation 
upon a subject not intrusted to it by the resolution under which it 



24 Repokt of the 

was appointed, we should respectfully but most earnestly recommend 
that any change which may be made in the provision for the mainte- 
nance of the soldiers' orphan schools, shall require the introduction 
of manual training, at least in wood-work for boys and sewing and 
cooking for girls, as an essential part of the course of instruction. 

For illustrative material forming a small part of that upon which 
the conclusions of the Commission are based, reference is made to the 
following ''Accompanying Papers " and appendices. 
Kespectfully submitted. 

Geo. W. Athekton, 
Adam H. Fetterolf, 
Nathan C. Schaeffee 
George J. Luckey, 
Theo. W. Bean. ' 



Industrial Education Commission. 25 



accompain'yixg papers. 

[The papers presented under this head were prepared for the Commission by indi- 
vidual members as material to aid in reaching conclusions.] 



A. and B. 

Memoranda hy Col. Theo. W. Beax. 

A— THE PRESENT SCHOOL L A. W- MANUAL TRAININQ MAY BE 
INTRODUCED IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 



With reference to the question "How far manual training can be 
incorporated into the present public school system in Pennsylvania, 
and what, if any, changes of law are necessary or desirable to that 
end," the following observations are submitted : 

Two questions are here proposed : a. Can manual training: b^ in- 
corporated into the public school system in Pennsylvania? h. What, 
if any, changes of law are necessary to authorize the introduction of 
manual training as a branch of learning in the public schools of the 
State ? 

The Constitution of 1874 contains no provisions prohibiting manual 
training from being taught in the public schools of the State. The 
language used is, "The General Assembly shall provide for the main- 
tenance and support of a thorough and efficient system of public 
schools, wherein all the children of this Commonwealth above the 
age of six years shall be educated, and shall appropriate at least one 
million dollars each year for that purpose." Under this liberal pro- 
vision, the public schools of the State shall be made " thorough and 
efficient," by such legislation as shall be deemed necessary, without 
any restrictive clause or proviso, and it is made mandatory upon the 
Legislature to appropriate " at least one million dollars each year" 
for the maintenance and si^pport of the syste n. An examination of 
the several acts of Assembly of the Commonwealth upon the subject 
of common, or public, schools, fails to disclose any statutory provisions 
prohibiting the incorporation of manual training into the public school 
yystem of the State. 

(The act of 1854 provides that " A system of common school educa- 
tion be, and the same is hereby deemed, held and taken to be adopted 
according to the provisions of this act," etc., and section 23 of said act 
provides, that the directors "shall direct what branches of learning 
shall be taught in each school, and what books shall be used, agree 
ably to the provisions of the 25th and 38th sections," of the same act. 
The 25th section provides that the directors shall establish a sufficient 
number of common schools for the education of every individual above 



26 Report of the 

the age of five (now six) years, and under twenty-one years of age, 
and the 38th section provide^ that '' county superintendents shall see 
that in every district there shall be taught ortho4i,raphy, reading. English 
grammar, geography and arithmetic, as well as such other branches 
(of learning) as the board of directors or controllers may require." 
Here we have the board of directors or controllers vested with the 
power to "direct what branches of learning shall be taught" in the 
schools, and the superintendents empowered to see that certain 
branches of learning named in the law are taught, as well as such 
"other branches (of learning) as the directors may require.") 

The Constitution provides that all the children of the Commonwealth 
over six years shall be educated^ and the governing acts of Assembly 
declare that " the school directors shall direct ' what Iranches of learn- 
'Ing'' shall be taught in each school." 

State Constitutions receive a broad and liberal interpretation in 
courts of law. Therefore, 1 assume that all that is comprehended in 
the words " branches of learning," as found in the statutes referred to, 
is taken to be within the meaning of the word " educated " as used 
in the Constitution. 

The first section of the act of 1854 provides for a " System of Com- 
mon School Educaciony The act does not define what that svstem 
shall be. It provides for a certain minimum of studies, and then vests 
the school directors with discretionary power to enlarge or vary the 
curriculum, giving scope and flexibility to the system. 

We believe the legislative mind studiously and advisedly chose the 
language in the act, and intentionally used the words " 'branches of 
learning!!'^ as distinguished from education. Under a fair construc- 
tion of the act, full force and effect must be given to this language. 

Webster defines the vrord learn as follows : " to acquire skill in any- 
thing. To gain by practice a f acuity of performing!''^ 

And learning^ (1). "The knowledge of principles or facts received 
by instruction or study. Acquired knowledge or ideas in any branch 
of science or literature." (2). " Knowledge acquired by experience, 
experiment or observation." 

Considering the act of 1854, we believe its provisions comprehend 
and authorize the introduction of manual training in the public 
schools of the State as a " branch of learning." 

Parent, guardian and pupil have the right to demand and receive 
as an equivalent for the school tax they pay all the advantages of the 
"branches of learning" now directed to be taught in the public 
schools. These schools are intended primarily to benefit the pupil, 
and indirectly the State, in the betterment of its citizens. Therefore, 
if the board of directors believe that instruction in drawing, cutting 
and making garments, knitting, plain and ornamental needlework, 
baking, broiling, stewing and roasting, with charts to study the anat- 
omy of food animals, and applied chemislry in culinary art for girls, 



Industrial Education Commission 27 

drawing and the use of hand tools for boys, in wood, iron, leather and 
in the use of machinery driven by water, steam or electricity, with 
instructions in wood carving and molding in plastic substances for 
boys and girls, will serve to give to the pupils " knowledge of princi- 
ples or facts," or enable them to acquire knowledge by " experience, 
experiment or observation," or to '* acquire skill in anything," or to 
"• gain by practice a faculty of performing^'' then these " hranches of 
learning " come within the word " educated," as used in the Constitu- 
tion, and which is defined by Webster as '^ comprehending all that 
series of instruction and discipline which is intended to enlighten the 
understanding, correct the temper, and form the manners and habits 
of youth, and M them for usefulness in their future stations.'^'' 

Primary instruction in manual training is as essential to a subse- 
quent scientific course of education as the trained eye and artful hand 
are to the accomplished instrumental musician. The performer reads 
the notes of harmony as a mental exercise and accompanies this intel- 
lectual process with a corresponding employment of the skilfully 
trained hands, feet, or it may be of the vocal organs. 

The students ot technical institutions and those taking the " scien- 
tific or technical course " at the many colleges and academical insti- 
tutions of the country are all making manual training a direct and 
contributory agency in the completeness of their education. 

The cadets of the United States Military Academy at West Point, 
New York, and of the United States Naval Academy, at Annapolis, 
Maryland, are trained in the manual of arms, gunnery, defensive field- 
works, horsemanship, constructive naval architecture, steam engineer- 
ing and seamanship, as a part of their education for the profession of 
arms ; if manual training is comprehended in the education of the 
musician, the civil and mechanical engineer, the otficers of the army 
and the navy, it follows that it may advantageously be made a part 
of the system of education provided for the children in the public 
schools of the State, who are certain to become our future artisans, 
farmers, merchants, manufacturers and those who are to preside over 
and measurably control the homes and households of the Common- 
wealth. 

The popular sense in which words are used in statutes must be 
given due weight in their interpretation by the lay, as well as the 
judicial mind. 

"Words are generally to be understood in their usual and most 
known signification, not so much regarding the proprieties of gram- 
mar, as their general and popular use." When discretionary powers 
are vested in public oflicers by the Legislature, the judiciary will not 
interfere with the exercise of them. The power of directing " what 
branches of learning " shall be taught in each shool is a discretionary 
power. 

Taking the popular sense of manual training as a means of mental 



28 Kepokt of the 

training, as understood and expressed by educators and public writers 
on the subject, it is certainly comprehended in the words, •' branches 
of learning" as used in the act of 1854, regulating public schools in 
this Commonwealth. 



B— LEGISLATION IN OTHER STATES. 



Very few of the States have as yet legislated on the subject of 
manual training, nearly all that has been done by towns and cities at 
the public expense having been done in accordance with the general 
authority conferred by law upon the local school authorities. The 
following, as far as ascertained, are the only important enactments 
now in force : 

Massachusetts. 
[Actot 1872.] 

Section 1. In every town there shall be kept, for at least six months 

in each year, at the expense of said town, by a teacher or teachers of 

competent ability and good morals, a sufficient number of schools for 

the instruction of all the children who may legally attend public school 

therein, in orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, 

arithmetic, drawing, the history of the Uidted States and good 

behavior. Algebra, vocal music, agriculture, sewing, physiology, and 

hygiene shall be taught, by lectures or otherwise, in all the public 

schools in which the school committee de^m it expedient. 

************ 

Section 7. Any town may, and every city and town having more 
than ten thousand inhabitats shall, annually make provision for giv- 
ing free instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing to persons 
over fifteen years of age, in either day or evening schools, under the 
direction of the school committee. 

Section 8. A town may establish and maintain one or more indus- 
trial schools, which shall be under the superintendence of the school 
committee, who shall employ the teachers, prescribe the arts, trades? 
and occupations to be taught therein, and have the general control 
and management thereof; but they shall not expend for any such 
school an amount exceeding the appropriation specifically made there- 
for, and shall not compel any scholar to study any trade, art, or occu- 
pation without the consent of his parent or guardian; and attendance 
upon such school shall not take the place of the attendance upon 
public schools required by law. 

Section 9. A town may establish and maintain, upon shore or upon 
ships or other vessels, at the option of the school committee, one or 
more schools for training young men oi boys in nautical duties; such 
school shall be subject to the provisions of the preceding section, 



Indcstrial Education Commission. 29 

except that the school committee may excuse boys attending such 
nautical schools from attendance on other schools. 

[Act of 1883.] 

An act for the establishment and maintenance of evening schools. 

Be it enacted, etc., as follows : 

Section 1. Every town and city having ten thousand or more in- 
habitants shall establish and maintain, in addition to the schools re- 
quired by law to be maintained therein, evening schools for the in- 
struction of persons over twelve years of age in orthography, reading, 
writing, geography, arithmetic, drawing, the history of the United 
States and good behavior. Such other branches of learning may be 
taught in such schools as the school committee of the town shall deem 
expedient. 

[Act of 1884.] 

An act relating to instruction in the elementary use of hand tools in 

public schools. 

Be it enacted, etc., as follows : 

Section one of chapter forty-four of the public statutes, relating to 
the branches of instruction to be taught in public schools, is amended 
by striking out, in the eighth line, the words '' and hygiene," and in- 
serting instead the words '' hygiene and the elementary use of hand 
tools," and in any city or town where such tools shall be introduced, 
they shall be purchased by the school committee, at the expense of 
such city or town, and loaned to such pupils as may be allowed to 
use them, free of charge; subject to such rules and regulations, as to 
care and custody, as the school committee may prescribe. 

Approved March 10, 18S4. 



Ne-w Jersey. 

An act providing for the establishment of schools for industrial educa- 
tion^ approved March twenty -fourth., eighteen hundred and eighty - 
one. 

Whereas, The establishment of well-conducted and liberally-sup- 
ported schools for the training and education of pupils in industrial 
and mechanical pursuits must tend to supply a growing want in our 
community of skilled mechanics, artisans and agriculturists; and 

Whereas., It is especially the duty of the State to afford good educa- 
tional facilities to its youth in those technical studies, which are 
directly associated with the material prosperity of its people; there- 
fore, 

1. Whenever any board of education, school committee, or other 
like body, of any city, town or township in this State shall certify to 
the Governor that a sum of money not less than three thousand dol- 
lars, has been contributed by voluntary subscriptions of citizens, or 



30 Report of the 

otherwise, as hereinafter authorized, for the establishment in any snch 
city, town or township, of a school or schools for industrial education, 
it shall be the duty of the said Governor to cause to be drawn, by war- 
rant of the comptroller, approved by himself, oat of the income of the 
school fund,* an amount equal to that contributed by the particular 
locality as aforesaid for the said object; and when any such school 
or schools shall have been established in any locality as aforesaid, 
there shall be annually contributed by the State, in manner aforesaid, 
for the maintenance and support thereof, a sum of money equal to 
that contributed each year in said locality for such purpose : Provided^ 
however^ That the moneys contributed by the State, as aforesaid, to 
any locality, shall not exceed in any one year the sum of five thousand 
dollars. 

2. All moneys raised and contributed as aforesaid shall be applied 
under the direction of a board of trustees, organized as hereinafter 
provided, to the establishment and support of schools for the training 
and education of pupils in industrial pursuits (including agriculture), 
so as to enable them to perfect themselves in the several branches of 
industry whieh require technical instruction. 

3. Any city, town or township shall have power to appropriate and 
raise by tax for the support of any such schools therein, such sum of 
money as they may deem expedient and just. 

4. There shall be a board of trustees of each of such schools, which 
shall consist of the Governor, ex oMcio^ who shall be president thereo'; 
two persons selected by the State Board'of Education ; two by citizens 
and associations contributing; two by the board of education, school 
committee or other like body of the locality where stich school is 
established, and one by the common council, township committee or 
other governing body thereof, if such city, town or township shall con- 
tribute to the maintenance of such school ; the said board of trustees 
shall have control of the buildings and grounds owned and used by 
such schools, the application of the funds for the support thereof, the 
regulation of the tuition fees, the appointment and removal of teachers, 
the power to prescribe the studies and exercises of the school and 
rules for its management, to grant certificates of graduation, to ap- 
point some suitable person treasurer of the board, and to frame and 
modify at pleasure such by-laws as they may deem necessary for their 
own government; they shall report annually to the State and boards 
of education their own doings and the progress and condition of the 
schools. 

5. The said trustees shall receive no compensation for their services, 
but the expenses necessarily incurred by them in the discharge of 
their duties shall be paid out of the income of the school fund * upon 
the approval of the Governor. 

* Act of April 4th, 1885. 



Industrial Education Commission. 31 

An act for the promotion of industrial education^ approved April 
twenty-eighth^ eighteen hundred and eighty-seven. 

1. Whenever, in any school district in this State, there shall have 
been raised by special school tax or by subscription, or both, a sum 
of money not less than one thousand dollars for the establishment in 
such district of a school or schools for industrial education, or for the 
purpose of adding industrial education to the course of study now pur- 
sued in the school or schools of such district, there shall be appro- 
priated by the State, out of the income of the school fund, an amount 
equal to that appropriated by the district as aforesaid; and when 
such school or schools shall have been established in any district, or 
said industrial education has been introduced into the course of study 
in the school or schools of any district, there shall be appropriated by 
the State for the maintenance and support thereof a surn of money 
equal to that appropriated each year by the district for such purpose : 
Provided^ That the moneys appropriated by the State as aforesaid to 
any school district shall not exceed in any one year the sum of five 
thousand dollars. 

2. That the trustees of any district in this State receiving an ap- 
propriation under the provisions of this act shall annually, on or be- 
fore the first day of September, making a special report to the Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction of the progress of industrial education 
in such district and such other information in connection therewith as 
he may require. 

An act for the promotion of manual training^ approved February -fif- 
teenth., eighteen hundred and eighty-eight. 
1. Whenever any board of school trustees or board of education of 
any school district in this State shall certify to the State Superintend- 
ent of Public Instruction that there has been raised by special district 
school tax, or by subscription, or both, a sum of money not less than 
five hundred dollars for the establishment in such district of a school 
or schools for manual training, or for the purpose of adding manual 
training to the course of study now pursued in the school or schools of 
such district, it shall be the duty of the said State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, with the appioval of the Governor, to draw his 
order on the ComptroUar and in favor of said district for a sum equal 
to that contribution by said school district as aforesaid for said object ; 
and when said school or schools shall have been established, or man- 
ual training shall have been added to the course of study in any dis- 
trict, there shall be annually contributed by the State, in manner 
aforesaid, for the maintenance thereof, a sum of money equal to that 
raised each year in said district for such purpose : Providad^ That the 
course of manual training established or introduced under the pro- 
visions of this act shall be approved by the State Board of Education : 
Provided further^ That the moneys appropriated by the State as afore - 



32 Report of the 

sad to any school district shall not exceed in any one year the sum 
of five thousand dollars, and that all payments made in pursuance of 
the provisions of this act shall be paid on the warrant of the Comp- 
troller out of the income of the school fund. 

2. The trustees of any school district in this State receiving an ap- 
propriation under the provisions of this act shall annually, on or be- 
fore the first da3^ of September, make a special report to the State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction, of the progress of manual train- 
ing in such district, and give such other information in connection 
therewith as he may require. 

An act to ame/td an act entitled '''An act for the promotion of indus- 
trial education^'' approved April twenty -eighth, one thousand eight 
htindred and eighty seven. Approved March seventh^ eighteen hun- 
dred and eighty eight. 

1. Whenever in any school district there shall have been raised by 
special school tax or by subsccription, or both, a sum of money not less 
than five hundred dollars, for the establishment in such district of a 
school or schools for industrial education or for the purpose of adding 
industrial education to the course of study now pursued in the school 
or schools of such district, there shall be appropriated by the State, 
out of the income of the school fund, an amount equal to that appro- 
priated by the district as aforesaid ; and when such school or schools 
shall have been established in any district, or said industrial education 
has been introduced into the course of study in the school or schools 
of any district, there shall be appropriated by the State for the main- 
tenance and support thereof a sum of money equal to that appropri- 
ated each year by the district for such purpose : Provided^ That 
the moneys appropriated by the State as aforesaid to any school 
district shall not exceed in any one year the sum of five thousand 
dollars; the treasurer of the city or the collector of the township, as 
the case may be, shall be the legal custodian of any and all funds 
subscribed, allotted or raised for the purpose of carrying out the 
instructioQ contemplated by this act, and he shall keep a separate 
and distinct account thereof, apart from all other moneys in his 
custody whatsoever, and shall disburse the fund on the properly au- 
thenticated drafts of the trustees of the school district, or other per- 
sons or board having charge of public schools in such district ; any 
unexpended balance to the credit of this fand in any township or 
city at the end of any fiscal year, shall not be covered into the 
treasury of the city or township, but shall be at the disposal of the 
school trustees or other persons or board having charge of public 
schools in the district, for the purpose of aiding industrial education in 
the succeeding year or years: Provided^ That any such unexpended 
balance shall nat be included in the report of the amount raised in 



Industrial Education Commission. 33 

any succeeding year for the purpose of procuring State funds as above 
provided. 

2. The trustees or other persons or board having charge of public 
schools of any district in [this] State receiving an appropriation under 
the provisions of this act shall annually, on or before the first day of 
September, make a special report to the Superintendent of Public In- 
struction of the progress of industral education in such district and 
such other information in connection therewith as he may require. 

3. It shall be lawful for the trustees or other persons or board hav- 
ing charge of public schools of any school district to associate with 
themseves in the management of this fund a number of citize'ns, not 
exceeding ten, representing the donors, in case the sum or any part 
thereof necessary to obtain the State appropriation shall have been 
raised by private subscription. 



New York. 

An act was passed in 1888 entitled : 
An act to authorize the establishment and maintenance of departments 
for industrial training and for teaching and illustrating the indus- 
trial manual arts in the public schools and normal schools of this 
State. 

The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and 
Assembly, do enact as follows : 

Section 1. Boards of education of cities and villages, and of union 
free schools and trustees of public school districts, are hereby author- 
ized and empowered to establish and maintain a department or de- 
partments in such schools for industral training and for teaching and 
illustrating the manual or industrial arts, and the principles underly- 
ing the same; and for that purpose they are respectively authorized 
to purchase and use such materials and apparatus, and to establish and 
maintain such shops, and to employ such instructor or instructors, in 
addition to the other teachers in said schools as in their judgment shall 
be deemed necessary or proper. 

Section 2. Said boards of education and trustees, or other bodies now 
authorized by law to levy and raise taxes for school purposes, are 
authorized to levy and raise by taxation, in addition to any amount or 
amounts which they are now, respectively, in any city, village or dis- 
trict, authorized by law to raise for school purposes, and in the same 
manner, the necessary funds to establish and maintain such industrial 
departments as aforesaid: Frovided^ A6>z^e^^e?', That trustees of school 
districts not organized as boards of education shall exercise no greater 
powers in these respects than they now possess by law, except upon 
a vote of such district. 

Section 3. The State normal and training schools which are or here- 
3 Ed. Com. 



34 Report of the 

after may be established in this State, hereby are and shall be required 
to include in their courses of instruction the principles underlying the 
manual or industrial arts, and also the practical training in the same, 
to such an extent as the superintendent of public instruction may pre- 
scribe ; and to such futher extent as the local boards respectively of 
said normal and training schools may prescribe. 
Section. 4. This act shall take effect immediately. 



Pennsylvania. 

In tfiis State an act was approved June 25, 1883, entitled. 
An act authorizing central hoards of education, in cities of the second 

class^ to establish and maintain schools for instruction in the 

mechanic arts and Mndred subjects. 

Section 1. Be it enacted., etc., That in every city of the second 
class the central board of education shall have power to establish 
and maintain one or more schools for the instruction of jjupils in the 
uselul branches of the mechanic arts and kindred subjects, to provide 
the necessary buildings, machinery, apparatus and materials, and to 
employ teachers and instructors therefor. 

Section 2. Such schools shall be subject to such rules and regula- 
tions as may, from time to time, be prescribed by the said board ; 
under said rules and regulations, they shall be open to the admission 
of such pupils, as are not enrolled, as well as of such as are enrolled, 
in the ordinary public schools of the city, and instruction may be 
gived therein in the evening, as well as the day. 

Section 3. The course of instruction shall, from time to time, be 
prescribed by said board, and may include chemistry, mathematics, 
natural philosophy, and other branches appertaining to the mechanic 
arts. 



At the last session of Congress a bill, which is still pending, was 
introduced in the Senate, entitled, 

A bill to incorporate trustees of the National Industrial Institute in 
Washington. District of Columbia. 

Be it enacted.^ etc.^ That [corporators named], and their associates 
and successors, be, and they are hereby, constituted a body politic and 
corporate in law, by the name and style of the "Trustees of the 
National Industrial Institute," and by that name may sue and be sued, 
plead and be impleaded, have perpetual succession, and shall and 
may take hold, manage, and dispose of, at all time, real and personal 
estate, and shall and may do and perform all other acts and things 
necessary or appropriate for the execution of the purposes, charities, 
and trusts for which the said corporation is created, and which are set 
forth in the second section of this act, and said corporation shall have 



Industrial Education Commission. 35 

power to adopt and make such constitution, by-laws and regulations 
as may be appropriate and necessary for carrying out the purposes of 
said corporation, including provisions for the election of trustees and 
officers and agents of the corporation, filling of vacancies occurring 
in such offices and agencies, the taking, holding and management of 
the property of the corporation, and the sale and conveyance thereof, 
when necessary, for the purposes of such corporation, and the trans - 
tion of all other business appropriate and necessary for the purposes 
of such incorporation, with power to adopt and use a common seal 
for such corporation, and the same to alter at pleasure. 

Section 2. That the object, purposes and powers of said corporation 
shall be, and the same are hereby, limited to providing teachers of 
industrial branches of education to the common schools throughout 
the United States, including the District of Columbia and the Terri- 
tories, by the establishment of a central normal school in the city of 
Washington, in the said district, for the purpose of preparing and ed- 
ucating persons of both sexes as teacher aforesaid; and for such pur- 
poses the said corporation shall have power to take, hold, use and en- 
joy all such real and personal property, endowments and contributions, 
whether by devise, gift or otherwise, as may be appropriated for the 
establishment, maintenance and success of said institution, and also 
to acquire, take, hold, use, occupy, manage ^and own, either in fee- 
simple or by lease or otherwise, such real estate in the said District, 
not exceeding one million dollars, to be held, used, occupied and en- 
joyed for the purposes aforesaid, and for the residence, use and occu- 
pancy of the proper and necessary officers, employes and agents of 
such corporation : Provided^ That the property, whether real or per- 
sonal, owned by the said corporation, and used exclusively for the pur- 
poses of said organization, shall be exempt from taxation. 



C. 

Memoranda selected hy Dr. A. H. Fetterolf. 
MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORY INSTITUTIONS. 



Extracts from the Annual Reports of the Inspectors of the Eastern 

Penitentiary, Philadelphia. 

(1880.) 

Prevention of crime is as iraportant a purpose of legislation as pun- 
ishment. Trade schools, technical schools, in which the vicious, neg- 
lected or incorrigible youth should be placed foi reform and training, 
are needed. They should not be characterized by any punitive fea- 
ture. Personal restraint, coercion or incarceration should not be any 
part of the plan of their administration. 

A tract of land, located away from large cities or communities 
without other enclosure than that which bounds a farm; with small 



36 Eeport of the 

houses, to accommodate not more than twenty inmates each, with 
shops and school-room, library and other necessary appendages, are 
only needed for such schools. 

The youth sent there for instruction in trade, and training in mind 
and morals, should find in the attraction and advantages the strongest 
tie to constitute their custody. 

Those who graduate with credit should have given to them as a re- 
ward of merit a diploma which would be sufficient evidence of ca- 
pacity, trade knowledge, and good character to warrant their employ- 
ment by railroad managers and other employers of skilled, workmen, 
or in various industrial establishments. Truancy from such schools 
should not be unexpected, but when retaken and returned the ab- 
sconding youth should be subjected to the most judicious mode of 
punishment. Experience would show such cases to be the exception 
rather than the general rule, attendant on the proper administration 
of the ''public trade schools." 

(1884.) 

Trade schools are the most prominent of preventive agencies. 
Establish methods of instruction in mechanical branches of indus- 
try in connection with approved means for mind culture, that pupils 
may have the advantage of the rudimental teaching to fit them for 
instruction in mechanical knowledge. Thus the capacities of the pu- 
pils are ascertained, and as they are developed the opportunity is 
promptly afi'orded for their proper training. 

But it will be observ^ed that a large number of the young evince 
criminal tendencies. The reasons are manifest. Their surroundings 
and associations; want of home government or parental care ; idle, 
incorrigible, vicious by hereditary taint or family infelicities ; vagrant 
and without care or oversia^ht ; such youth are directly liable to the 
temptations of mischief, and without any restraint they follow courses 
that end in crime. The houses of refuge or other prison reformatories 
are their first destination. For such as these. State trade schools 
should be established. 

These institutions should be neither places of imprisonment nor 
forced restraint. These youth should be sent to these schools, and 
there so treated that the advantages presented would enlist their in- 
terest, excite their desire to learn, and be the means of securing their 
remaining as pupils till they had acquired a trade for their support in 
after life. 

It is not to be expected all pupils would be so influenced, but if a 
majority were made useful, honest, capable mechanics, the State 
would be amply remunerated for the limited cost of such establish- 
ments. The first money outlay would be inconsiderable in amount. 
A farm of three hundred acres, with ten small frame houses, each 
to accommodate twenty boys, with neither locks, nor bars, nor bolts, 



Industrial Education Commission. 37 

to restrain them, with shops to teach blacksmithiug, horse shoeing, 
harness making, wagon making, and the like industries, should be the 
attractive and detaining influences. 

Caring for the stock, agriculture, and out-door work would be a 
prominent part of the labor. Schools for the rudiments of education, 
for teaching the anatomy of animals, the first principles of chemistry, 
the use of metals, should be part of the course of instruction. 

It is not intended to give more than in the merest outline, the char- 
acter of such schools. Experience will make perfect what is now 
only a tentative description. It is the necessity of such schools that 
is now most important to be aflirmed. Such an institution is worth a 
trial. The State can lose nothing. The cost of the care of these 
youths after they are criminals is far greater than the expense of such 
a plan to prevent them from being convicts. 

» 
(1885.) 

The necessity of some well-considered plan by which the neglected 
class of children can be taught the rudiments of primary education, 
with those of mechanical handicraft knowledge, is too apparent to 
need further afiirmation. 

It cannot be denied that if one million and a quarter dollars are 
yearly raised by taxation in the city of Philadelphia for school pur- 
poses, some portion of this fund might wisely be expended in efforts 
to prevent crime in a class of scholars who need such teachings. The 
poor, neglected, ungoverned pupils, without home influence for good, 
subjected to neither parental oversight nor home influences, domestic 
attachments or family ties, might, out of this large yearly fund, be 
taught and trai^ied by careful methods, at least to avoid the peni- 
tentiary, as the school in which their minority graduates into man- 
hood. 

Establish trade schools where this class can be instructed. Let 
there be neither bolts, bars, locks, nor forced restraint. Let these 
schools be a collection of family houses, in which a certain numbe 
of pupils are convened for all purposes except the teaching. 

In each house the inmates are to sleep, eat, and pa-ss their hours of 
rest. Each house is to be managed by the inmates — kept clean and 
made comfortable. Create a system of encouragement by rewards 
for a method of successful home life to be maintained by the inmates 
of these houses. So, too, with all the relations these pupils hold to 
the school. 

Teach all the trades that are needed in every day life. Divide the 
pupils into classes as they show aptitudes, for blacksmiths, wheel- 
wrights, harnessmakers, shoemakers, horse shoers, carpenters, and 
the like. Obtain two hundred acres of land; put a plain post and 



38 Report of the 

rail fence to mark its boundaries. Teach the care of farm stock, farm- 
ing, agriculture, the farm work; utilizing the labor for the benefit of 
the school. 

Teach, in connection with this manual training, the knowledge that 
directly belongs to each branch. Fix certain hours for mental im- 
provement, in conjunction with out-door lessons in " facts and things." 

Create ties thus between the awakened interest of the pupils and 
their school home. If any argument is needed to emphasize these 
views, the foregoing facts are deemed suflScient, or at least of value 
in support of them. 

Extract from the Annual Raport of the Board of Public Charities. 

(1887.) 

• There is much interest to every citizen of this great Common- 
wealth in the annual reports of the inspectors of this prison (Eastern 
Penitentiary). These reports are already before your Board, and it 
is not possible for us to enter into all the questions so ably discussed 
in them. But on one point we feel that we must express our hearty 
concurrence with the recommendations of the inspectors, viz : lor the 
establishment of " trade schools, established by State authority for the 
reception of ungoverned, uncontrolled, derelict youth under twenty 
years of age." The inspectors add : "These institutions should be in 
no sense places of enforced detention. Neither is it to be understood 
that sentences by courts of law are to be necessary for reception into 
such schools. Judges and magistrates should be authorized by law 
to remit such persons to these schools, for care and instruction, as 
parents entrust their children to boarding schools, away from their 
homes." This recommendation so often and so earnestly repeated, is 
made from statistics whose results must attract serious attention from 
all thoughtful persons. For instance, from January 1, 1876, to Decem- 
ber 31, 1883 (ten years), there were received into the Eastern Peni- 
tentiary from Philadelphia county, 678 convicts, 2.o years of age and 
under, on their first conviction. Of these 67S, 550 attended public 
school, 36 private school, and 92 never attended any school ; 64 had 
trades by apprenticeship or by working at them, 614 had no knowl- 
edge in hadicraft, and 526 were idle at time of arrest. During tne 
previous ten years, out of 1,160 convicts not older than 25 years of 
age, only 146 had never attended school, while 1,024 had no knowledge 
in handicrait, and 83:d were idle at time of arrest. Well may the in- 
spectors say that "these facts command earnest and thoughtful con- 
sideration," and the Legislature of our State can have no subject pre- 
sented to it of higher importance. We invoke the aid of your Board 
in securing the adoption of a measure that cannot fail to be effectual 
in the prevention of crime. 



Industrial Education Commission. 39 

Charity Organization Society of the City of New York, 

General Office, 21 Univebsity Place, June 23^ 1688. 
Mr. A. H. Fetterolf, LL. D., Girard College. Philadelphia^ Fa. 

My Dear Sir : Replying to your inquiry of the 8th inst., asking m}^ 
views as to '^ how far proper manual instruction or industrial training 
would go to relieve pauperism and crime in our large cities," I would 
premise that I have thought it necessary to take into account the 
mental and moral, as well as physical deterioration that results from 
lack of skilled ability in any department of labor. 

Much of the existing pauperism is the result of a lack of that adapt- 
ability and versatility which manual dexterities promote, and which 
go far to enable the poor to meet and overcome their helplessness. I 
believe manual training to be the chief physical factor in cultivating 
these agencies, and so enabling the depressed to rise superior to their 
trammels, and in developing latent and unsuspected capabilities. It is 
my opinion that such training tends much to overcome the stigma at- 
taching to manual labor ; a condition that results in precipitating large 
numbers of those who are born with some opportunities for education, 
into despondency and penury. 

The connection is so close between physical poverty and mental 
and spiritual poverty, in my mind, that I cannot disassociate them in 
replying to your question. 

T believe that not far from forty per cent, of the pauperism, poverty 
and depression, which rapidly sinks into pauperism, is due to a lack of 
the resources and intelligence which result from a training which 
equips its recipients for all departments of manual work, without 
giving them technical education in any of them. 

In this estimate I do not mean to include felonies, concerning which 
I do not feel competent to speak, but I would include all those petty 
crimes and vices which accompany depraved penury in a large city, 
and which may be included under the generic term •' pauperism," 
which, like war, may be said to be " the sum of all villianies." 

The nearer we come to giving a generation a well rounded educa- 
tion of the brain, the heart and the hands the better we shall prepare 
men, handicapped from birth with poverty in an over-crowded labor 
market, to rise above the lowest ranks of unskilled and insufficiently 
paid labor, and more particularly will we put them in a way not only 
of independence but often of rescue from ruin. 

You may think I attach large importance to the agency of indus- 
trial training, but the education which strengthens the body and ele- 
vates the mind intellectually and morally, and gives man broader 
views of natural laws, unquestionably fits him better to cope with the 
disadvantages and disabilities ot his position. 

By far the larger part of the cases of poverty that come under my 
notice reveal a lack of character in some one particular, and, as John 



40 Keport of the 

Stuart Mill says of those who are acquiring industrial education, " they 
would acquire not only manual dexterity, but habits of order and reg- 
ularity of the utmost use in after lite, and which has more to do with 
the formation of character than any persons are aware of." I believe 
with Mr. Belfield, of Chicago, "that the number who, as paupers and 
criminals, subsist on the honest earnings of others is much larger than 
it would be if the youth of the country had been taught to earn an 
honest living by the labor of their hands." 

I remain, dear sir. 

Yours very truly, 

Charles D. Kellogg, 
General Secretary, 
The following table of reformatory and similar institutions is given 
for the purpose of presenting in a single vievv a few leading facts 
respecting their work and administration, with special reference to the 
industries there taught. 



Industrial Education Commission 



41 















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Industrial Education Commission. 43 



D. 

By Dr. N. C. Schaeffer. 



NORMAL SCHOOLS. 



In accordance with the duty assigned me I have written to the State 
Superintendents of all the States in the Union which have normal 
schools recognized by law, and have gathered the following informa- 
tion : 

1. The following States oifer free tuition to all students preparing 
to teach: Alabama, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, 
Massachusetts, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, 
New York, Rhode Island, Texas, West Virginia, Wisconsin. 

California offers free tuition to all students of that State. 

In Iowa, a fee of $1 per month is paid for contingent expenses, 

Kansas offers free tuition to all students who take the regular course 
and defrays railroad fare in excess of $3. 

Maryland offers free tuition to students if they have been regularly 
appointed by the school board of the city or county in which they 
reside. 

Massachusetts offers free tuition and some State aid besides. 

In Michigan each member of the State Legislature may make two 
appointments to the normal school. These students are required to 
pay no tuition fee. All others pay a small fee. 

In Minnesota, tuition is free to residents of the State who pledge to 
teach two years. 

In South Carolina, tuition in the Winthrop Training School at Co- 
lumbia is free to one pupil from each county in the State. 

In Texas, tuition, text books and use of libraries are free to all 
students. Half the board of one hundred and sixty-nine students is 
paid by the State. 

In Vermont, there are two hundred and forty-three free scholar- 
ships for the three State normal schools. 

2. The salaries of the instructors are paid out of State funds in all 
these States except Illinois, Kansas, South Carolina, Vermont, West 
Virginia, Wisconsin. 

In Illinois, the salaries are paid in part from the fund derived from 
the sale of lands given to the State when it was admitted into the 
Union. The amount from this source is less than $13,000. The re- 
mainder of the money for salaries is paid from the State treasury. 

In Kansas, the salaries are paid out of an income of $17,000 from 
invested funds and the balance from incidental fees. 

In Wisconsin, there is an endowment fund of $1,200,000, and if this 



44 Report op the 

source of income is insufficient, the Legislature makes an appropria- 
tion to pay the deficit. The State has 200,000 acres of unsold land. 

In South Carolina, West Virginia and Louisiana the salaries are 
partly paid by donations from the Peabody fund. 

3. The following table exhibits the amount of appropriation to each 
school for maintenance and other purposes: 

f Florence |7,500^ 

I Huntsville, ... 4,000 

Alabama, <; ^J^^^^®^®®' ; ; ; |'^^^ )> Average to each school, |3, 750. 

I Jacksonville, . . 2,500 
(^Livingstone,. . . 2,500, 
California ^ San Jose, . . . 40,000 
Laiuoima, j Los Angeles., . 19,750 

Connecticut 17,000 

Tiiir^^ia S Normal, . . . .• . 21, 0004-proceeds of fund =27,493 56 
iiimois, j Carbon dale, =27,060 00 

Iowa, 15,100 

Kansas, 23,000 Income of fund, ^17,000 ; State appropriation 

usually from ^3 , 500 to |6 , 000. 

Louisiana, 8,500 

Maine, 19,000 for three schools. 

Maryland, .10,500 

Massachusetts, 14,000 Normal Art School, ^16,000. 

( 63,000 for 1887. 
Michigan, { 32,500 for 1885. 

( 27,000 for 1883. 
( Winona,. ... 18,000 
Minnesota J ^^ankato, . . . 16,000 
Mmnesota, < g^^ cioiid, . . . 16,000 

t Moorehead, . . 5,000 

New Jersey, 20,000 

New York, from 18,000 to $23,500 for maintenance. 

Missouri, 12,500 

Nebraska, . . • • • 20,000 

Is ew Hampshire, 7,000+2,000 from Plymouth. 

Rhode Island, 12,000 

South Carolina, 5, 100 

Ta^«« ^ Sam Houston, . . . 25,000 

xexas, ^ praii-ie View, ... 15,000 

4. Manual training has received very little attention in the normal 
schools of these States. The Maryland Normal School teaches wood 
work to the young men and cooking and sewing to the young women. 
The Prairie View Normal School in Texas began this year with work 
in wood and metals, and with sewing and cooking for girls— appro- 
priation, $5,000. The schools at Whitewater and Milwaukee, in Wis- 
consin, have a shop department in which pupils are trained in the use 
and care of common tools, and general principles relating to the con- 
struction of simple forms in wood work, in lathe and forge work. 

A large part of the students are females from sixteen to twenty-five 
years of age. They learn to handle hammer, saw, square, auger, bit, 
plane, chisel, forge, lathe, etc., etc., making various articles of furniture, 
apparatus involving varied forms of joints, morrises, tenons, etc., etc. 

For several years the pupils (ladies) of the State Normal School at 
Salem, Mass., have been off'ered instruction in the use of carpenters' 
tools. From fifty to sixty volunteered to learn the use of hammers, 
saws, planes, augers, etc., etc. The amount of time given to this work 
was not large (one lesson of one hour each week), but much interest 
was shown in the work, and many articles, such as easels, book cases, 



Industrial Education Commission. 



45 



were made by the young ladies for their own use. Principal Hagar 
says that the results are satisfactory. 

The Legislature of New York passed an act in 1888 requiring the 
"State normal and training schools " to include in their courses of ia- 
struction the principles underlying the manual or industrial arts, and 
also practical training in the same to such an extent as the Super- 
iatendent of Public Instruction may prescribe, and to such further 
extent as the local boards respectively of said normal and training 
schools may prescribe." 

Table of Average Appropriations to each School, &c. 







'5 fi * 


.S« 








r3 C -^^ 


Z'^ 








fl"-^ C3 . 


S c 








d.=«4^ >1 


op 






d 
o 


age a 
oropr 
m S 
easur 


1 


Remarks. 




-+J 




C o 






H 


< 


M 




Alabama, 


Free, . 


|3,7fi0 00 






California, .... 


P'ree, . 


29,875 00 






Connecticut, .... 


Free, . 


17,000 00 






Illinois, 


Free, . 


27,276 78 


113,000 00 




Iowa, 


Free, . 
Free, . 


15,100 00 
32,000 00 


17,000 00 




Kansas, 


Defrays railroad fare of each 










student in excess of f3.00. 


Louisiana, 


Free, . 


8,500 00 






Maine, 


Free, . 


6,333 33 






Marj'land, 


Free, . 


10,500 00 






Massachusetts, . . . 


Free, . 


14,000 00 




State aid besides. 


Michigan, 




34,000 00 
13,750 00 
12,500 00 






]\Iinnesota, 






Missouri, 


Free, . 




Nebraska, 


Free, . 


20,000 00 






New Jersev, .... 


... . 


20,000 00 






"New Hampshire, . , 


Free, . 


9,000 00 






New York, 


Free, . 


19,388 00 





Each normal school has shops 
for manual training. 


Pennsylvania, . . . 




5,000 00 




The State pays tifty cents a 
week to certain students 
and fSO.OO as a graduation 
fee. 


Rhode Island, . . . 


Free, . 


12,000 00 






South Carolina, . . 


Free, . 


5,100 00 






Texas, 


Free, . 


20,000 00 




Free text books and free use 
of libraries. Half the board 
of 169 stu ents is paid. 


Vermont, 


Free, . 






243 free scholarships. 


West Virginia, . . . 


Free, . 


2,200 00 




Wisconsin, 


Free, . 


10,000 00 


1,200 00 


All the normal schools ex- 
cept one were wholly sup- 
ported by the income of 
the fund. 



lb 



From the foregoing statements it is evident that our sister States 
have been far more liberal towards their State Normal Schools, and 
that several are in advance of our State in the matter of manual train- 
ing. Principal Lytle of Millersville says they have begun wood- work 
in one of their recitation rooms, which has been fitted up for the pur- 
pose. This school, which is the oldest in the State, has perhaps more 
room in its buildings than any other school. Nevertheless the prin- 



46 Report of the 

cipal says : '' To be properly equipped we should have a new build- 
ing, and should need an appropriation from the State to erect and 
furnish it. Probably the buildings for the different schools could be 
erected by the State on the same general plan." In the State Normal 
Schools of Pennsylvania manual training has been given chiefly in the 
form of penmanship and drawing, and upon the play ground in the 
shape of base ball. The results in penmanship and drawing are com- 
paratively satisfaclory ; the instruction in these branches is constantly 
improving, and no change need here be recommended. But the time 
and effort spent upon base ball might be turned to better account. 
The manual skill developed by this game is truly marvelous. Think 
for a moment of the elements in the problem which the pitcher or the 
catcher must solve ! Dr. Thomas Hill, ex-president of Harvard, says : 
^' The epicycloidal theories of Hipparchus, the Newtonian theory of 
gravitation, the resolution of centripetal and centrilugal forces, the 
conic sections of Appolonius, and the modifications of these curves by 
the resistance of the air — all these are involved in the problem and 
must be practically solved before the school boy can give his fellow a 
good ball or catch one on the fly." If the same time were spent upon 
work in wood and metals, it would furnish less exhaustive and more 
valuable exercise for both body and mind, and a kind of manual sldll 
would be developed that would be of the highest utility in subsequent 
life. 

In the construction or repair of school apparatus many teachers are 
very helpless. They do not know how to fashion wood, to mold iron, 
to solder tin, to cast lead, to temper wire, to manipulate glass, etc., 
simply because they have not been taught these processes. A course 
in manual training would enable teachers to construct at small expense 
much of the apparatus which they need; and the instruction in our 
public schools might thus be greatly improved.* 

There is nothing to hinder the introduction of work in wood and 
metals and of instruction in sewing and cooking, except the lack of 
funds with which to provide the necessary tools and appliances and to 
pay for the additional teaching that would be required. 

*Prof. S. R. Tliompson, of Westminster College, New Wilmington, Pa., (formerly 
State Superintendent of Nebraska), promised his trustees that if they would give him 
^500 to investin tools, materials, etc., he would at the end ot the year turn overtothe 
institution a thousand dollars worth of apparatus for the teaching of physics. The 
value of the apparatus by catalogue prices w^as found to exceed ^1,100.00. Prof. 
Thomjjson claims that with $=25.00 worth of materials he can make apparatus for at 
least 300 of the experiments described in text books. Among other things he has 
constructed a machine for measuring the hourly growth of a plant. 

Prof. J. P. Naylor of the University at J31oomington, Indiana, claims that a teach- 
er's manual skill should enable him to make all the apparatus needed to teach Gage's 
Introduction to Physics experimentally, with the exception of the following pieces : 
1. Balances; 2. Atwood's machine; 3. Eight in one apparatus ; 4. Siren in one appa- 
ratus ; 5. Air-pump ; C. Aneroid Barometer ; 7. Thermometer ; 8. Concave and convex 
mirror; 9. Glass prism ; 10. Setof lenses; 11. Pocket spectroscope ; 12. Ruhmkortr's 
coil ; 13. Pascal's apparatus ; 14. Pieces requiring skill in glass blowing. 



Industrial Education Commission. 47 

Without doubt the chief hindrance to the complete success of the 
normal schools has been their inability to secure and keep the highest 
order of teaching talent. The higher salaries of the city and county 
superintendencies, and of professorships in our high schools and col- 
leges, the greater emoluments of the three older professions, and the 
more profitable lines of modern business are constantly drawing away 
from our normal schools their most successful teachers. This difficulty 
cannot be overcome so long as the salaries must be derived from tuition 
fees paid by the students, most ofwhom have been or will be butpoorly 
remunerated for their work as teachers in the public schools. In view 
of these facts it would be wise at no distant day to inaugurate in Penn- 
sylvania the policy of her sister States which provide by appropriation 
for the salaries of the instructors in their normal schools, thus offering 
free tuition to all students who are preparing to teach. 



By Superintendent Geo. J. Luckey. 



INDUSTBIAL EDUCATION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OP PENN- 
SYLVANIA. 



At the first meeting of this Commission, held in Harrisburg, Decem- 
ber, 1887, I was requested to inquire into the extent to which manual 
training had been introduced into the schools of the State, and report 
the result of my inquiries to the Commission, and to make such sug- 
gestions as I thought prudent and wise with reference to State aid*for 
the furtherance of this branch of school work in the public schools of 
the Commonwealth. By travel and correspondence I find that no 
steps have yet been taken by the local school authorities looking for 
the introduction of any branch of manual training in any of the un- 
graded country schools of the State ; but in quite a number of the 
populous centers a beginning has been made, and the results have 
been very generally commended by the intelligent people of these 
localities. In Philadelphia the movement has assumed a very consid- 
erable magnitude, and the school authorities have ceased to talk of it 
as an experiment, and are actively engaged in making provision ior 
its general introduction into all the grades of the city schools. Sev- 
eral excellent institutions of a higher grade, for the education of young 
men for the arts and industries have long existed in Philadelphia, and 
the excellent work done by them has created a public sentiment in 
favor of eye and hand training which does not exist in most sections 
of the State, and this sentiment has greatly aided the school officials 
in their present efforts to lay the foundation for this work in the pub ■ 



48 Keport oj^^ the 

lie schools of the city. If there were no other examples presented, 
the work already done in Philadelphia would sufficiently demonstrate 
the utility and feasibility of making manual training a part of the 
course of study in all graded schools. While other cities and a num- 
ber of towns in the State have made satisfactory experiments in this 
line, none have as yet incorporated it permanently into their school 
system. Pittsburgh, encouraged by the generous offer of Mr. Henry 
Phipps, Jr., to provide a teacher, opened a school kitchen for the train- 
ing of young ladies in the art of cooking; this school has already de- 
monstrated the wisdom of its projector, and will most likely become 
part of the school system. A number of small towns on the Allegheny 
river have made experiments in the simpler kinds of wood and iron work, 
and in every locality visited or officially heard from, every effort made 
to extend the course of study in an industrial direction has met and is 
meeting the approval of the citizens. 

While my instructions did not contemplate any investigation of this 
subject beyond the limits of the Commonwealth, I have, nevertheless, 
visited a number of cities in other States where extensive experiments 
have been made in this line of school work, and while in none of them 
is the work so extensive or general as in Philadelphia and Boston, yet 
in Baltimore, Washington, Toledo and Cleveland, they have each a 
single plant in which, however, very thorough and practical work is 
done for a certain advanced grade of pupils. In most cities where 
there is a single school, the plant has been established by private en- 
terprise, and although under the charge of the public school authori- 
ties, it is usually for advanced pupils, and its advantages are not within 
reach of the great mass of pupils that attend the public schools. Often 
the very class of pupils that would be the most inclined to attend these 
sch'ools and who need most the training here offered, do not, nor can- 
not, remain in school long enough to be admitted. 

It will thus be seen that in order to extend the advantages of manual 
training to all classes of children, the plan of establishing special schools 
and employing special teachers must be abandoned, and our corps of 
regular teachers must be fitted and qualified to do as successful and 
thorough work in this line as they now do in the required school 
branches. 

In presenting this idea to a number of prominent men, I have been 
uniformly met by the question '• are all our teachers to be educated 
in carpentering, tailoring, cooking and machine building ? " thus show- 
ing that the fundamental idea of manual training is often misunder- 
stood by many of our most intelligent citizens. Hence it is that I 
place second in importance to the education of our teachers for their 
work, the proper education of the people in the objects to be attained 
by manual training. Somehow the idea has become general, that 
manual training means the training of children for specific trades, and 
that the children are to be fitted in the schools to be machinists, car- 



Industrial Education Commission. 49 

penters, joiners, dressmakers and professional cooks, while the true 
idea that a hand and eye training is a necessary supplement to mental 
training, to round out and complete the education of all the child's 
powers and faculties and properly fit him for all (not smj one) of life's 
callings is only understood by the few. Reading, writing, arithmetic, 
geography aiid grammar are as much a special training for the pro- 
fessions, and no more, than manual training is for the trades. While 
the idea of trades should be scrupulously avoided in presenting any 
plan for the introduction of industrial work in the common schools, I 
desire to call your attention specially to the great need of making pro. 
vision for the special education of the inmates of our reformatories, in 
some of the common industrial callings, so that when they are released 
from these institutions they may be able to find readily some useful 
and honorable employment and not be driven by necessity to join the 
already large and growing army of professional tramps that throng 
our highways. And, if not foreign to the objects for which our Com- 
mission was organized, I would like to suggest to you the propriety of 
recommending to the Legislature the necessity of taking some steps 
toward securing compulsory primary education. 

We must not forget that we are a republic, and that every citizen 
is a sovereign, and that the perpetuity of our free institutions depends 
upon the intelligence, virtue and culture of the people. The rapid 
growth in population, and the great influx of an uneducated foreign 
element that appears to have but little interest in the proper rearing 
of their children, have produced a long list of uneducated voters in 
our Commonwealth, and the law of self-preservation demands that 
some compulsory measure be adopted that will secure to every child 
in the State the advantages of a primary education, thus making him 
an intelligent, helpful and useful member of society. 
Respectfully, 

Geo. J. LucKEY. 



4 Ed. Com. 



50 Kepokt of the 



APPENDIX I 



TEJHISriCAI. AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED 

STATES. 



Technical and industrial education in the United States has assumed 
several different forms. It has been established either by private in- 
itiative or by State action as a higher scientific and technical educa-. 
tion, sometimes independently, sometimes as a branch of larger insti- 
tutions ; and it has in a large number of instances been established as 
manual training or as trade training, in connection with special grades 
of the public school system, or as single establishments supported by 
the munificence of individuals. Previous to 1862 there had been es- 
tablished in the United States only four important scientific institu- 
tions, viz : the Eennesselaer Polytechnic School of Troy, New York : 
the Lawrence Scientific School at Cambridge, Mass., in connection 
with Harvard University ; the Sheffield Scientific School at New Haven, 
Conn., in connection with Yale College; the Chandler Scientific 
School, in connection with Dartmouth College, at Hanover, N. H., 
and the Scientific School, in connection with Union College, at Schenec- 
tady, N. Y. Of these, only the Troy Polytechnic was a separate in- 
stitution, and all of them were chiefly occupied with mathematical 
instruction, pure and applied. Besides these should be mentioned, 
perhaps, the United States Military Academy at West Point, and the 
United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, both established and main- 
tained by the United States Government, and having the special aims 
indicated by their names. 

Under the act of Congress of July 2d, 1862, which is mentioned in 
the body of the report, one or more institutions have been established, 
in each State of the Union, the ''leading object" of which, as stated 
in the words of the law, is " to teach such branches of learning as are 
related to agriculture and the mechanic arts." The deve'opment of 
these institutions has varied largely according to local requirments. 
Some of them have devoted themselves almost or quite exclusively to 
instruction in the sciences directly related to agriculture ; others have 
covered a wider field. Several of them have given special attention 
to instruction in the mechanic arts, extending it to include all the lead- 
ing branches of mechanical and physical science, combined with an 
extensive course of training in shop work. 

The most important of those belonging to the latter class are mem- 
tioned in the accompanying list. Besides the institutions founded 
upon the law of 1862, several have been established since that date 



I:«DUSTRiAL Education Com3iission. 51 

which have attained high rank in these particular departments, such 
as Stevens Institute, at Hoboken, N. J.; Tulane University, at New 
Orleans, La.; Lehigh University, at Bethlehem, Pa. ; the Rose Poly- 
technic Institute, at Terre Haute, Ind.; the Case School of Applied 
Science, Cleveland, Ohio, and several others of less importance. 

In order to ascertain as fully as possible the extent to which manual 
training and industrial education in general is in progress throughout 
the United States, the following letter of inquiry was addressed to 
each State and Territorial Superintendent of schools : 

State College, Centre Co., Pa., July 2Sd, 1888. 

Dear Sir : Will yon be kind enongh to send me for the nse of tJais Commission 
any copies of yonr annual report, which contain statements or discussions of tlie sub- 
ject of industrial education, and especially any other documents that your otficemay 
hare published, treating particularly on this subject. I desire also to ascertain how 
far the subject has been introduced into the schools of your State, either public or 
private; and if you would have the accompanying blank tilled out, so that I may as- 
certain the results of the work in such places, it would be a very important service 
to our State and to the Commission. 

Very respectfully yours, 

Geo. W. A.THERTON. 

Replies to this letter were promptly sent by the State Superinten- 
dents of Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut, District of Columbia. Florida, 
Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, 
Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennes- 
see, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia and Wisconsin. They not only 
named the places where industrial education is in progress, but their 
replies were accompanied in many cases with documents, and in some 
with helpful suggestions. 

On receipt of these replies, the following letter was addressed to 
each institution or officer mentioned in them : 

State College, Pa., Septemher 14, 1888. 
Dear Sir : It would be a very great service to the Commission and to myself 
personally, if you could send me copies of your reports or other documents giving 
full accounts, either of your work in manual training or of any discussion, muni- 
cipal ordinances, or other legislation relating to it. I should be especially glad ot 
anything you may have indicating the results of the work thus far, and the attitude 
of the public mind towards it. No details can be too minute to be of service. I shall 
be glad to reciprocate your courtesy by any means in my power. 

Yours very respectfully, 

George W. Athertox. 

The responses to this letter have been most ample and generous, 
including not merely printed documents, but in several instances, full 
and detailed statements specially prepared for the use of the Commis- 
sion It will be found, accordingly, that the facts presented in this 
report embody the results of the most varied and most recent experi- 
ence, and maybe accepted as furnishing a trustworthy guide for simi- 
lar undertakings in this Commonwealth, which, in many respects, it 
will be seen is not behind her sister States. 

The following list thus obtained, supplemented in pai t from other 



52 Report of the 

sources, will give some idea of the extent to which this work has been 
entered upon. The list includes several which should be classed un- 
der the head of technical or scientific institutions, devoting them- 
selves principally to the higher branches of such instruction, and 
having little or no relation to the public school systems of their re- 
spective States; but while such institutions are not directly connected 
with the inquiries in which this Commission was primarily interested, 
it seemed desirable to give them a place in the enumeration, in order 
to indicate the facilities already provided for higher as well as for 
lower technical training. Much care has been used to make the list 
as nearly complete as possible, and it is believed to contain every 
place in which manual training has been undertaken to any import- 
ant extent; yet the movement in this direction is so general that it 
would not be surprising to find that schools had been established even 
while this report is going through the press. It should be added, to 
avoid misapprehension, that the list does not include the institutions 
known as ^'industrial schools," which are to be found in very many 
places throughout the country. Such schools are generally, if not 
always, either charitable or corrective, and designed for poor, home- 
less or otherwise unfortunate children. Manual occupations are there 
followed for the purpose of giving employment and forming habits of 
industry, rather than with an educational aim, and therefore have no 
place in the present work. 

Places in "which Technical or Industrial Education is Carried on. 

In the State of Alabama : 
Aubur7i, State Agricultural and Mechanical College ; Montgomery, ; Tus- 

kegee, Normal School; Huntsville, . 

In the State of Colorado : 

Denver, Denver University (Haish Manual Training Department); Fort Col- 
lins, State Agricultural College. 
In the District of Columbia : 

Washington, Public Schools. 
In the State of Connecticut : 

Mansfield, Storrs Agricultural College ; New Britain, Normal School ; New 
Haven, Public Schools. 
In the State of Florida : 

Jacksonville, Colored Graded School. 

Lake City, State Agricultural College. 
In the State of Georgia : 

Atla7ita, Atlanta University; School of Technology. 
In the State of Illinois : 

Beardstown, Public Schools. 

Chicago, Chicago Manual Training School. 

Moline, Public Schools. 

Perv, Public Schools. 

XJrbana, Illinois State University. 
In the State of Indiana : 

Indianapolis, Public Schools. 

Lafayette, Purdue University. 

Terre Haute, Rose Polytechnic Institute. 
In the State of Iowa : 

Ames, State Agricultural College. 



Industrial Education Commission. 53 

In the State of Maine : 

Orona, The State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts. 
In the State of Maryland : 

Baltimore, Public Schools. 

Kent county, Public Schools. 

McDonogh, McDonogh Institute. 

Talhot county. Public Schools. 
In the State of Massachusetts : 

Boston, Public Schools ; Institute of Technology. 

Cambridge, Public Schools (Rindge Manual Training School). 

New Bedford, Public Schools. 

Sojlem, Girls' Normal School. 

Springfield, Public Schools. 

Worcester, Worcester Polytechnic Institute. 
In the State of Minnesota: 

Minneapolis, Public Schools ; University of Minnesota. 

iSt. Paul, Public Schools. 
In the State of Missouri : 

St. Louis, Polytechnic School of Washington University. 
In the State of Nebraska : 

Omaha, Public Schools. 
In the State of Nevada : 

Carson City, Carson High Schools ; State Orhpans' Home. 
In the State of New Hampshire : 

Concord, Public Schools. 

Dover, Public Schools. 

Manchester, Public Schools. 

Nashua, Public Schools. 
In the State of New Jersey. 

Elizabeth, Public Schools. 

Hoboken, Public Schools ; Stevens Institute of Technology. 

Montclair, Public Schools. 

Morristown, Public Schools. 

Neivark, Public Schools. 

Orange, Public Schools. 

Vineland, Public Schools. 
In the State of New York. 

Albany, High School. 

Brooklyn, Pratt Institute, 

Ithaca, Cornell University. 

Jamestown, Public Schools. 

New York City, Public Schools (12) ; College of the City of New York ; Hebrew 
Technical Institute ; Workingmen's School ; Industrial Educational Associa- 
tion. 

Troy, Kennesselaer Polytechnic Institute. 
In the State of Ohio : 

Cincinnati, Technical School. 

Cleveland, Case School of Applied Science ; Manual Training School. 

Toledo, Manual Training School. 
In the State of Pennsylvania : 

Carlisle, Indian School. 

Haverford, Haverford College. 

Philadelphia, Manual Traiuing School ; Girard College ; Pennsylvania Museum 
and School of Industrial Art ; Spring Garden Institute. 

South Bethlehem, Schools of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Mining and 
Metallurgy (Lehigh University). 

State College, The Pennsylvania State College (department of Mechanic Arts and 
Mechanical Engineering). 



51 Report of the 

In the State of Pennsylvania — Continued. 

Swarthmore, Swath more College. 

Tidioute, Manual Training School. 
In the State of Rhode Island : 

Newport, Girls' Industrial School ; Boys' Industrial School. 

Providence, Friends' School ; Incidentally in some of the Public Schools. 
In the State of South Carolina : 

Charleston, Porter Academy. 

Chester, Brainerd Institute (colored). 

Columhia, South Carolina University ; Benedict Institute (colored). 

Orangeburg, Claflin University (colored). 
In the State of Virginia : 

Blackshurg, Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. 

Crozet, Miller Manual Labor School. 

Hampton, Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. 

Richmond, Mechanics' Institute. 
In the State of Wisconsin : 

Tomah, Public Schools ; Sparta, Public Schools ; West Eau Claire, Public 
Schools ; Whitewater, State Normal School ; Mihvaukee, State Normal School > 
Staughton, Public Schools; Madison, University of Wisconsin. 

The superintendents of schools in the iollowing States and Territories 
failed to reply to the repeated inquires of the commission : 

Arizona, Arkansas, California, Dakota, Delaware, Idaho, Kansas, 
Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, Michigan, New 
Mexico, Texas, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. 

The following accounts of the organization and work of different in- 
stitutions is arranged in the order of States alphabetically. It \\onld 
be more useful for some purposes to classity the institutions in groupcs, 
according to their general character and aim ; but, aside from the in- 
herent difficulties of such a classification, the present arrangement 
seems more desirable as showing the extent of the distribution of 
industiial education throughout the country. Not all institutions 
mentioned in the preceding list are described in the following pages 
The design has been to include all the most important instances of 
industrial education not above the high school grade, in connection 
with, or in close relation to the public schools, with a sufficiently full 
account of a few typical iustitutions of higher grade. 

The information given is compiled mostly from documeLts issued 
by the institutions themselves, but quotation marks are introduced 
only in cases wdiere passages of considerable length are quoted with- 
out change of phraseology or arrangement : 



Ijsdustrial Education Commission. 65 

1. ALABAMA. 

1. The Alabama Polytechnic. 

''The Alabama State Agricultural and Mechanical College," or 
" The Alabama Polytechnic Institute," at Auburn, makes manual 
training obligatory upon students of the three lower classes of the col- 
lege. The full work of each class is six hours per week, in three ex- 
ercises of two hours each. 

The nature of the work in each department is as follows : 

First Year. 

I. A course of carpentry (hand work, covering the iirst term and 
part of the second, or about five months). 

The lessons include instruction on the nature and use of tools, in- 
struction and practice in shop drawing, elementary work with plane, 
saw, chisel, etc., different kinds of joints — timber splices, cross joints, 
mortise and tenon, mitre and frame work, dovetail work, comprising 
different kinds of joints used in cabinetmaking, light cabinet work, 
examples in building, framing, roof trusses, etc. 

II. A course in turning, extending through the three months of the 
third term. The lessons comprise, first, nature and use of lathe and 
tools, plain straight turning, caliper work to different diameters and 
lengths, simple and compound curves, screw plate and chuck work, 
hollow and spherical turning. 

Second Year. 

I. A course in patternmaking, covering the first half of the first 
term. The work includes a variety of examples of whole and split 
patterns, core work, etc., giving the students familiarity with the use 
of patterns for general molding. 

II. A course in molding and casting in iron and brass, occupying 
ten weeks. The work consists for the most part of small articles, such 
as light machine parts; but a sufficient variety of forms are introduced 
for the student to acquire a good general practical knowledge of the 
usual methods and appliances used in light foundry work. -Most of 
the work is in green sand in two-part flasks. Core work is also given, 
and some three-part flask and some dry sand work is introduced. 

The same patterns which have been previously made by students 
are used, besides special patterns for occasional larger or more com- 
plicated work. Instruction and practice is given in working the cu- 
pola, each student in turn taking charge of a melting. 

III. A course in forge work in iron and steel occupying the remain - 
d3r of th3 year. Th3le^>^on5 araarraag^d s:> th"itth3 Svad3nh3,in mik- 



56 Report of the 

ing the series of objects, become familiar with the nature of the metals 
and the successive steps in working them by hand into simple and 
complex forms, as drawing, upsetting, bending, cutting, punching, weld- 
ing by various methods, tool forging, hardening, etc. 

In connection with this second year work, a series of lectures is given 
on the matallurgy and working of the metals used in the industrial 
arts, cast and wrought iron, steel, brass, etc. 

Third Year. 

I. A course in chipping and filing covering the first term. The les- 
sons comprise work on cast and wrought iron, chipping to line on flat 
and curved surfaces, key-seating, etc., filing and finishing to line 
(straight and curved), surface filing and finishing, fitting, slotting, 
dove-tail work, sliding and tight fits, sawing, pin, screw and key filing, 
surface finishing with scraper, etc. 

II. Machine work, occupying the remainder of the year. The work 
includes cast and wrought iron, steel and brass, turning to various di- 
ameters and lengths, taper turning, facing with chuck and face plate, 
drilling both in lathe and drill press, reaming, boring, screw cutting in 
lathe and with taps and dies, planing, slotting, etc., with planer and 
shaper, milling various forms with the milling machine, fitting, grind- 
ing, poliphing, etc. 

Lectures are also given during the year on various subjects con- 
nected with machine work in metals, such as forms, construction and 
use of the various machines, cutting tools, gearing, gauges, screw 
threads, etc. During the last term some piece of construction work is 
given the classes. 

Instruction is generally given, first, by blackboard drawings or 
sketches which the student copies, with dimensions in note book, with 
which each one provides himself; thus each one works from his own 
notes. This is supplemented, whenever necessary, by the actual con- 
struction of the lessons by the instructor before the class ; second, by 
inspection and direction at the bench by the instructor. 

Students desiring to pursue the study of applied mechanics beyond 
the above course will take a special course of steam and mill engi- 
neering, supplemented by experiment and practice with the appara- 
tus, including steam generation and the forms, construction and use 
of steam boilers and accompanying apparatus, steam as a motive 
power, and forms, construction and use of the steam engine, with the 
study and use of the indicator, transmission of power, shafting, belt- 
ing, gearing, etc. ; also elementary theoretical mechanism. 

Drawing. 
Drawing is a univeisal language of great value as a means of edu- 
cation, constituting the basis of all mechanical work. No student can 
successfully pass through the school of mechanic arts without a 
knowledge of mechanical drawing; hence, it is made prominent, and 



INDUSTRIA.L EDUCATION COMMISSION. 57 

the pupils are first taught how to read and make a working drawing 
in plan, elevation and section. 

Each exercise is placed on the blackboard as a working drawing. 
This the student copies in his note book, and is required to reproduce 
it to scale in wood or metal. 

This passage from the abstract to the concrete is a mental exercise 
of the highest educational value. In the higher classes, he will be re- 
quired to make working drawings of machines from direct measurement. 

The educational, economic and social value of the work is thus set 
forth in a special report of the institution for 1888 : "Among the many 
educational advantages of manual training in the mechanic arts, when 
associated with those studies that constitute a general and liberal edu- 
cation, may be mentioned the following : 

(1). It satisfies and cultivates the boy's instinct for activity, and 
directs it towards the useful and beautiful. 

(2). It excites pleasure in work and in the acquisition of skill, pro- 
duces self-confidence and self-reliance. 

(S), It cultivates and excites concentration, attention and persever- 
ance. All these are required of the student to successfully reproduce 
his drawing in the concrete with the correct measurements. 

(4). It awakens and trains the artistic powers and talents, and does 
this at an early age, preventing arrest by disuse, and giving oppor- 
tunity for full development. 

(5). It awakens and cultivates the senses and constructive faculties, 
and secures knowledge and power, acquired in no other way. 

(6). The knowledge obtained in this school by working and doing 
the things required is impressive and lasting. That which is appre- 
hended through the hand, eye and brain becomes a fixed part of the 
mental furniture. 

(7). It teaches the student to observe, investigate, test and invent. 

(8). It gives healthy exercise to different parts of the body, and 
thus in a great degree is a substitute for gymnastic exercises. 

(9). The active occupations of the mechanic arts laboratory prevent 
idleness and inspire diligence, and thus give a healthy tone to the 
mind and character. 

(10). It gives the young graduate, by the acquisition of industrial 
skill, the ability to do something, with consequent self-reliance and 
increased power. 

(11). It elevates and gives dignity to manual labor. Brain power 
and manual skill ennoble every form of occupation. 

(12). It enlarges the choice of vocations and will tend to increase 
the number of manufacturing enterprises, and thereby add wealth to 
the State in diversifying industries. 

(13). The association of mental and manual training, when gener- 
ally adopted in our systems of education, will have an important bear- 
ing on the solution of the problem of the relation of capital to labor." 



58 Report of the 

Dr. Broun, President of the Institution, writes: 

'•Manual Training was introduced in the college in 1885. The en- 
sine, lathes and appliances for wood work were purchased and the 
lower classes were taught carpentry, turning, etc. In 1886 there were 
built two rooms 32x36 for forge and foundry; these were supplied 
with proper equipment. Our work in two years had made a favorable 
impression and we received a small special appropriatic n from the 
Legislature. With this there was purchased an excellent equipment for 
the machinery department We are now well equipped in the four 
departments of wood, forging, foundry and machinery. 

With us each student in college, except those in the junior and 
senior classes, is required to take six hours a week in mechanic arts- 
The course is optional with the junior and senior classes. 

We have had three years' experience in manual training, and are 
satisfied that its introduction has been of much benefit to the students 
and has made a most favorable impression on our patrons and the 
State generally. The college is now regarded as an essential factor in 
the educational development of the State, and will receive from it, I 
am very confident, all necessary support. 

The work greatly interests the students. Some acquire consider- 
able skill and do excellent work, in the short time allowed to it. 
Three exercises a week, two hours each, is as much as can be given 
here, as we have also three exercises in military drill. I regard the 
work in mechanic arts as a valuable educational auxiliary, that tends 
to aid intellectual development, form habits of industry and influence 
character for good. It is an educational feature of great importance, 
one that will in time exert a lasting influence of benefit to the State. 

2. Tuskegee Normal School. 

The Tuskegee Normal School was established by act of the Legis- 
lature of Alabama, passed in 1880, and was opened in a church, July 
4, 1881, with thirty students and one teacher. 

In the same year that the school was opened, the present location 
(consisting then of one hundred acres of land and three small build- 
ings) was paid for by friends of the school outside of the State appro- 
priation. 

The corner stone of 'Porter Hall' was laid at the close of the first 
session, and the building was completed at the close of the second 
session at a cost of $6,000. 

Work was begun on 'Alabama Hall' in the summer of 1884. 
This building, which has been completed and is now being occupied, 
is a brick structure 43x76, four stories high, and contains, beside dor- 
mitories for one hundred young women, dining room and kitchen for 
all the students and reading room and parlor for the girls. The two 
main halls, with the brick cottage now being erected for young men, 
will furnish ample accommodations for all. 



Industrial Education Commission. 59 

The school is now in the sixth year of its existence, has eighteen 
officers and teachers, and an enrolment of 294 students representing 
nearly every county in Alabama and live States. 

On the establishment of the school, the State of Alabama appro- 
priated $2,000 annually, for its support. This amount was incressed 
to $3,000 in 1882. The State fund is used entirely to pay tuition, but 
is not more than two-fifths enough to cover that item. 

For money for buildings, land, apparatus and to help pay teachers' 
salaries, the school looks to its friends North and South. 

The property is deeded to a board of trustees, six of whom reside 
in the North and five in the South. 

Work is required of all the students for purposes of discipline and 
instruction, and of teaching the dignity of labor. A few students 
with no money work all day and attend school at night for a year. Tu 
this way they earn money with which to pay their expenses in the 
day school the succeeding year. 

The various lines of work carried on, with the results attained, are 
indicated by the following extracts from the " Sixth Annual Report" 
of the school. 

Farm. 

More has been done on the farm this year (1887) than in any pre- 
vious one. Good crops of corn, potatoes, peas, melons and other veg- 
etables have been produced. These have been used, for the most 
part, in the school boarding department, but a quantity has been sold 
to outside purchasers. An addition by purchase of sixty acres of 
land, makes the school farm about 600 acres. Of this, 475 acres are 
in woods ; the remainder is available for tillage each year. 

The brick-yard is operated in connection with the farm. There 
have been made this year, 150,000 bricks for the boys' cottage and 
outside sale. There is a good demand for brick in the town of Tus- 
kegee and the country around, and as there is no other yard near, the 
school enjoys almost a monopoly of the brick trade of the community 

Saw Mill. 

This is proving one of the most paying of our industries. More 
than 150,000 feet of lumber have been sawed, principally, from tim- 
ber from our own woods. 

Carpenter Shop. 

The work of this department has been greatly extended this year 
(1887). All of the wood work of buildings put up by the school, is 
now done by student mechanics trained in the Slater carpenter shop. 
Besides this, much of the furniture used by the school, as beds, tables 
wardrobes, benches, etc., is manufactured in this department. 

None of our industries have developed more rapidly than this one 
and none produced better results. 



60 Report of the 

Printing Office. 

The work of the school printing ofSce will compare favorably with 
that of any job office in the State having no more facilities than it has. 

Besides doing all of the school printing, including catalogues, re- 
ports, circulars, a monthly paper and a large amount of miscellaneous 
work, the office prints the minutes of conventions, bill heads, letter 
heads, dodgers, etc., etc., for outside parties. 

The demand for negro printers in the South is much greater than 
the supply. 

Two of the members of this yearns graduating class have a practi- 
cal knowledge of the printer's trade which they acquired in the school 
office. 

Industrial Room. 

The work of this department has been especially creditable this 
year. It has employed a large number of young women daily in cut- 
ting and making garments, crocheting, embroidering and doing gen- 
eral repairing. 

In General. 

The industrial operations of the school grow more satisfactory each 
year. The actual work done is of greater value to the school, and the 
instruction the student receives is of a more helpful character to him. 
In all of the work, instruction to the student is made paramount. 
'' Three things are accomplished through the work system, viz : 
'' 1st. The students are enabled to pay a part of their expenses of 
board, books, etc., in labor. 
*' 2d. They learn how to work. 
'* 3d. They are taught the dignity of labor." 
Mr. B. T. Washington, principal of the school, writes : 
" Since the establishment of this Institution, the area for industrial 
education has been considerably enlarged here, and as far as my ex- 
perience leads me I can say that its successful operations, being 
closely associated with the mental training, have been entirely satis- 
factory. By training the hand to some industrial calling the miud of 
the student acquires more firmness and stability of purpose in life, 
and is better fitted to take in the four years' normal educational 
course. By learning how to work, while they are at the same time 
broadening their minds, the students are taught the dignity of labor, 
and so they become thereby useful citizens and helpful to others. In 
the industrial branches there have been sent forth a competent plas- 
terer, a carpenter, a printer and young men with more practical and 
enlightened ideas of farming. All the luildings on the school grounds 
have heen erected hy students'^ labor. The hrivks were made hy them^ 
the lumber was sawed and worked up by them^ and there has recently 
gone up a new building called ''Armstrong Hall^ wholly the work of 
studentsP [The italics are ours.] 



Industrial Education Commission. 61 



II. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

Public Schools of the District. 

During the first eight years, systematic and progressive instruction 
is given, beginning with the various kindergarten exercises and con- 
tinuing to more advanced work — molding and drawing — both free- 
hand mechanical. 

In the seventh and eighth grades of the schools, work is carried on 
in the shops. This includes : 

First Year. 

{Iwo Hours a Week Throughout the Year.) 

Seventh and Eighth Grades. 

Bench Work. 

The correct method of using planes, handsaws, chisels, gouges, 

brace and bits, hammer, gauge, and other tools, and the working of 

different kinds of wood. 

The laying out of work with knife and pencil, using try- square, 

bevel and dividers, and working from drawings executed by the pupil 

himself. The making ot' plain and of more complex mortise-and-tenon 

joints, dovetailing and plain cabinet-making; articles of practical 

utility for the schools and shops ; the putting together of work with 

brads, nails, screws and glue ; the care and sharpening of edged tools; 

the use of circular saws. 

Lectures on wood and other material used in the shops, showing 

where and in what condition each is found, and by what processes it 

is prepared for use or for market. Also, lectures on the manufacture 

of tools. 

Second Year. 

(^Two Hours a Week Throughout the Year.) 
Eighth Grade and High School. 

Lathe Work. 
The use of all the hand wood-turning tools, embracing plain and 
fancy turning in hard and soft wood, inside and outside ; the use of 
chucks and face plates ; pattern turning. 

Molding. 
Bench molding in sand and casting soft metal, embracing the use 
of stickers, trowels, riddle, etc., using patterns made by the pupil 
himself. 

Forging. 

The forging of small articles of soft iron and steel, and steel tools, 
with instruction in the simpler methods of manufacture of iron and steel. 
Practice in welding iron. 
Practice in hardening and tempering steel. 
Lectures on metallurgy. 



62 Report of the 



III. CONNECTICUT. 

New Haven Public Schools. 

The following statements, quoted from the annual reports of the 
Board of Education for 1887 and 1888, indicate the policy of the New 
Haven public schools with reference to manual training: 

The decision was made one year ago, in September, 1886, to estab- 
lish manual training in a central shop and to employ a permanent 
instructor. The room provided is eighty five feet long by twenty-five 
feet wide, is lighted on three sides, is easy of access, and fitted with 
twenty four benches, complete sets of carpenters' tools and other con- 
veniences. 

Under the direction of a " practical mechanic and designer, with 
some experience in teaching, instruction was commenced November 1, 
1886, and since that time ten classes of twenty-four boys each, making 
one class from each grammar school, has received two hours instruc- 
tion each week. 

The basis upon which the boys were selected is best understood 
from the instructions sent to the principals at that time. 

'' By vote of the Committee on Schools you are hereby instructed 
to select twenty-four boys from rooms 11 and 12 for instruction in 
manual arts. The selection is to be made at your discretion, with 
the exception that none are to be taken who have been poor in 
deportment or who have been negligent in their school duties. It is 
recommended that preference be given to those who have not had 
previous training of this kind and who, being desirous of it, are likely 
to gain a benefit from it. Those choserL as members of the several 
classes are not to be dropped during the year unless they fail to sus- 
tain an excellence in scholarship equal to their record prior to this 
time. If they clearly fail to do this they are to be dropped and others 
are to be substituted." 

A systematic course of lessons has been given, involving use of 
the ordinary tools, and practice in the various steps of carpentry. 
Little attempt has bsen mide to construct articles of utility. 

An optional class in wood-carving attended on Saturday mornings 
and excellent specimens of handiwork were the result. 

In both carpentry and wood-carving, working irawings were made 
and used as a guide. It cannot be said that all the work was performed 
with the care that could be desired. Some boys were heedless and 
seemed to lack the power of close attention and nice execution. The 
entire inability of some to use their hands at first and the decided 
gain in manual power exhibited after a few months of practice, fur- 



Industrial Education Co^imission. 63 

iiish strong arguments in favor of such training. Says Superintendent 
E. P. Seaver of Boston, concerning the value of manual training: 

" This workshop or laborarory method of instruction brings the 
learner face to face with the facts of nature. His mind increases in 
knowledge by direct personal experience with forms of matter and 
manifestations of force. No mere words intervene. Abstract defi- 
nitions, statements and rule are put aside. They are not recognized 
as knowledge, but only as the frames or cases into which knowledge 
can be put when it is got. I firmly believe that the introduction of 
the manual training element into our school work will promote still 
further their salutary reform ; that it will tend to abolish the mere 
formal teaching, of which there is yet too much, and replace it with 
real teaching, a teaching that seeks to develop mental power rather 
than to load memory with words, to make the pupil a possessor of the 
solid merchandise of knowledge rather than of its empty packing cases.*' 

These words are a fair statement of the relation of our manual 
training school to all other departments of teaching. Although in a 
crude stage of development, it is likely to grow in favor and excel- 
lence until its rightful place in the school system is determined. In 
the meantime it stands as a protest against the teachingof mere words, 
and makes its eloquent appeal forrecognilion on the ground that it sup- 
plies an element m education that has been almost entirely lacking. 

The following is a statement of expenditures on account of manual 
training, 1886-87: 

Wood WORK. 
Fitting up work-shop (repairing benches, 

buildings, racks, etc.), $3-1:7 32 

Tools, and sharpening and repairing, etc., . . 222 40 

Lumber, nails and other material, 98 45 

Rent, 250 00 

Insurance, 21 90 

Instruction, 640 00 

Janitor, 59 00 

$1,639 07 

Sewixg. 

Baskets, $6 35 

Needles, thread and other material, .... 8 64 

Travel, 51 00 

65 99 

Total, $1, 705 06 

Estimated value of tools owned by the district, .... $450 00 

Estimated value of benches, racks, etc., owned by the 

district, . 300 00 

Estimated value of lumber and other material on hand, 10 00 

Total, $760 00 



64 Report of the 

Scheme of Lessons Given at the Manual Training School. 

From November, 1886, to June, 1887. 

Each tool when it is first used, is described, the different parts named, 
and the way to hold and use it explained. After the boy has learned 
how to use a tool he is shown how to sharpen it on the oil stone, and 
is required to keep it in good order. 

Lesson I. 

Hammer. 

1. Exercises in striking a block of wood with hammer, to show wrist, 
elbow and shoulder movements, and to learn to strike '' square." 

2. Exercises in driving nails of different sizes, perpendicularly, and 
in drawing them. 

3. Exercises in nailing two boards, seven-eighths of an inch thick, 
together, with nails of different sizes, driven obliquely, and in draw- 
ing them. 

Chisel and Try Square. 

4. Take board six inches square, mark out the corners square, with 
try square and lead pencil ; cut them out perpendicularly, with one 
inch firmer chisel. 

5. Take board six inches square, round the corners with one inch 
firmer chisel, cutting perpendicularly ; prove with try square. 

Lesson IL 

Chisel to Line. 

1. Take piece twelve inches long, one and one-halfinch wide, seven- 
eighths of an inch thick, and mark with rule and compass a pointed 
arch, at one end, and a round arch at the other end; shape out with 
one inch firmer chisel, cutting with the grain from sides to center of 
arch. 

Halving. 

2. Take two pieces six inches long, two and one-half inches wide, 
seven eighths of an inch thick, and halve them together, using rule, 
try square, single gauge, scratch awl, hacksaw, one inch and a quarter 
firmer chisel, and cutting board. Always use cutting hoards to save 
cutting the l)ench. 

Half Dovetail. 

3. Make a half dovetail, with one piece five inches long, one inch 
and a quarter wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and one-four inches 
long, one inch and a quarter wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, 
using same tools as in two, except one-half inch chisel instead of one 
inch and a quarter. 

Lesson III. 
End Mortise and Tenon. 
1. Take piece five inches long, one inch and a quarter square, and 



Industrial Education Commission. 65 

for mortise in one end ; take piece same size and form tenon at one 
end; using rule, try square, scratch awl, mortise gauge, back saw, 
three eights of an inch chisel and bench vice. 

Boring. 

2. Take piece three inches long, one inch and a quarter square, cen- 
ter the sides and ends with single gauge, put in the vice, and bore half 
way through with one-quarter inch bit; reverse, and bore from the 
other end. 

3. Repeat the above, using three eighths inch, one-half inch, five- 
eighths inch, three fourths inch and seven-eighths inch bits. 

Lesson IV. 

Sawing Square. 

1. Take piece twelve inches long, one inch and a quarter wide, seven- 
eighths of an inch thick, mark two sides one inch from end, with try 
square and scratch awl, and saw off evenly. 

2. Repeat above, sawing off piece seven eights of an inch, three- 
fourths of an inch, one-half of an inch, three eights of an inch, one- 
quarter of an inch and one-eighth of an inch. 

Through Dovetail. 

3. Take one piece four inches long, one and one- eighth inch square, 
and one piece three inches long, one and one-eighth inch square, and 
make through dovetail, using one-half inch chisel for cutting. 

Lesson Y. 

Jack Plane. 

1 . Take piece eighteen inches long, twelve inches wide, one inch and 
a half thick, place on bench, fiat side down, end firmly against bench 
hub, and plane off a few shavings with jack plane, as set. 

2. Take the plane apart, naming its parts ; put it together and prac- 
tice setting it, comparing the shavings, until it is set correctly. 

3. Take piece six inches square, seven-eighths of an inch thick, mark 
off the corners, forming* an octagon ; using rule, compass and scratch 
awl. Saw off corners, leaving line, and smooth edges with block plane. 

Cross Cut Saw. 

4. Take board eight feet long, six inches wide, seven-eighths of an 
inch thick, lay off a line, with try square and lead pencil, six inches 
from the end, and saw off, leaving line. 

5. Repeat above, sawing on the line. 

Lesson YI. 
Grooving. 
1. Take piece three inches long, three inches wide, seven-eights of 
an inch thick, and make a groove, one half-inch wide, one- half inch 
5 Ed. Com. 



68 Report of the 

deep, through the center, across the grain, using rule, mortise gauge, 
try square, scratch awl, back saw, bench hook, three eighths of an inch 
lirmer chisel, bench vise and cutting board. 

2. Take piece four inches long, three inches wide, seven- eights of 
an inch thick, cut a tenon on one end to fit grove; using same tools 
as in 1. 

3. Round the ends of both pieces with firmer chisel, using try square 
to prove correctness of work. 

4. Put together and test with try square. 

Rijjping Saiv. 

5. Take board eight feet long, twelve inches wide, seven-eighths of 
an inch thick, mark oif with single gauge a strip two inches wide ; put 
it on the horse and saw to line, then put the board in the bench vise, 
one end resting on the bench pin ; plane with jack plane, and true up 
with jointer, using try square to prove it. 

6. Repeat above, sawing on the line. 

Lesson YII. 
Framing. 

1 . Saw from stock a strip two feet long, one inch wide, seven-eighths 
of an inch thick, using single gauge and rip saw. 

2. Square up with fore plane, trying plane and try square. 

3. Saw off with back saw, piece twelve inches long, for stile, and 
one five inches long for rail. 

4. Form mortise in stile, and tenon on rail, using bench vise, back 
saw, bench hook, one-inch firmer chisel, three- eighths of an inch mor- 
tise chisel and mallet. 

Lesson VIII. 
Framing {Completed). 

1. Drive together the pieces prepared in the last lesson and smooth 
face with block plane. 

Halving. 

2. Saw from stock, piece forty inches long, one inch wide, seven- 
eighths of an inch thick, using rip saw. 

3. Square it up with jack plane, trying plane and try square, gaug- 
ing to thickness and width. 

4. Gut off two pieces twelve inches long, and two eight inches long, 
and halve corners together, making a frame with ends projecting one 
inch. 

Lesson IX. 
Halving {Completed). 

1. Round the ends of the pieces prepared in the previous lesson , 
using compass, firmer chisel, and wood file. 

2. Fut together and smooth up with block plane. 



INDUSTRIAL Education Commission. 67 

Sawing and Planing. 

3. Saw from stock, piece twelve inches long, two inches square. 

4. Square it and plane all sides. 

5. Cut from stock piece four inches long, four inches wide, seven- 
eighths of an inch thick. 

6. Square it and plane all sides. 

Lesson X. 
Gauging. 

1. Center, with marking gauge, on all sides from end to end, th3 
twelve-inch piece prepared in last lesson. 

2. Square off a line all around, three-quarters of an inch from end, 
then on that line, point off five- eighths of an inch on each side of cen- 
ter, on all four sides ; from the points thus obtained, draw lines ob- 
liquely to the corners at the other end ; then draw lines, from the said 
points, on the line squared off, to the center of the top. 

Beveling. 

3. Bevel with draw knife, and plane true, using bevel to prove the 
work. 

Chamfering . 

4. Chamfer the top to a point, as marked out. 

Lesson XL 
Doweling. 

1. Draw a line through the center of the base of the column, made 
in the last lesson, point off three-eighths of an inch on each side of 
center. Make centers with scratch awl, to bore from, and bore holes 
perpendicularl}^ one inch deep, with one-quarter of an inch twist bit. 

2. Glue in one- quarter incn dowels ; ends to project five- eighths of 
an inch. 

3. Center the piece four inches square, prepared in lesson IX — 4. 
Measure three-eighths of an insh on each side, bore perpendicularly, 
holes five-eighths of an inch deep. 

4. Set gauge three-eighth of an inch and gauge round the top and 
sides, chamfer off, using one-inch firmer chisel, true up with block 
plane and try square. 

5. Glue together, making column and plinth. 

Lesson XII. 
Draw Knife. Planing to Line. 

1. Saw from stock, strip twelve inches long, two inches square. 

2. Square up sides and ends. 

3. Gauge off three eighths of an inch from all the corners, put in 
bench vice, take off corners with draw knife and plane to line. 



68 Repokt of the 

Lesson XIII. 
Mortising. 

1. Saw from stock, two pieces twelve inches long, one and one-half 
inch wide, seven-eighth of an inch thick for stiles, and two pieces 
eight inches long, one and one-half inch wide, seven-eighths of an inch 
thick for rails. 

2. Square them up. 

3. Form mortise in stiles, and saw tenon in rails. 

4. Mortise to be two-thirds the thickness of ihe stile, rails to enter 
stiles three-quarters of an inch from the end, and tenons to project 
five-eighths of an inch. 

Lessoc^ XIY. 

Mortising {completed). 

1. Finish up and fit mortise and tenon, commenced in last lesson, 
with chisel. 

2. Round the ends of tenons. 

3. Drive together, and plane off back and front. 

Lesson XY. 
Glue Joint. 

1. Saw from stock, two pieces three feet long, three inches wide, 
seven-eighths of an inch thick. 

2. Plane the edges square, with jack plane, trying plane, and try 
square. 

3. Joint together. 

Lesson XYI. 
Beveling. 

1. Saw from stock, two pieces three feet long, three inches wide, 
seven-eighths of an inch thick. 

2. Square them up. 

3. Mark on edge with bevel (set to templet 45°), and plane to bevel 
with jack plane, fore plane, and trying plane. 

Lesson XYII. 

Blind or Mitre Mortise. 
L Saw from stock, two pieces six inches long, two inches wide, 
seven-eighths of an inch thick. 

2. Square them up. 

3. Make mitre mortise and tenon, using try square, scratch awl, mor- 
tise gauge, back saw, three eighths of an inch mortise chisel, and bevel. 

4. Put the mortised piece in mitre board and plane true. 

Lesson XYIII. 
Blind or Mitre Mortise {completed). 
1. Drive together the pieces made in last lesson. 



Ii^DUSTRiAL Education Commission. 69 

2. Level off faces and ends with block plane. 

3. Kound the ends to finish. 

Lesson XIX. 

Mitreing. 

l: Saw from stock, strip eighteen inches long, three inches wide, 
seven- eighths of an inch thick. 

2. Smooth it up and square it. 

3. Out iato four pieces, four inches long. 

4. Mark corners of each piece on flat side with scratch awl and 
bevel (set to templet 45°). 

5. Put in mitre box and saw to line. 

6. Put in mitre board and true up. 

7. Fit together and test with try square. 

Lesson XX. 
Mitreing {Gom.pleted) . 

1. Glue together the pieces made in the last lesson, and key it, 
making a frame. 

Dovetail. 

2. Saw from stock, two pieces four inches long, three inches wide, 
seven-eighths of an inch thick. 

3. Square them up. 

4. Mark for dovetail and saw out. 

Lesson XXL 
Dovetail {completed). 

1. Chisel out and fit the pieces made in last lesson. 

2. Drive them together and level off with block plane. 

3. Eound the ends. 

Lesson XXIL 
Framing and Wedging. 

1. Saw from stock, one piece six inches long, one and one-fourth 
inches square, and one piece four inches long, one and one-fourth 
inches square. 

2. Square them up. 

3. Form mortise three-eighth of an inch by one and one-fourth 
inches in long piece, using mortise guage and three-eighth inch mor- 
tise chisel. 

4. Form tenon on short piece, to fit mortise, and to project one inch. 

5. Cut hole in tenon, beveled on one side for wedge, using one- 
fourth inch chisel. 

6. Drive together and wedge. 



70 Eeport of the 

Lesson XXIII. 
Squaring to Size, 

1. Saw strip one and one-half inches wide from one and one-half 
inch plank. 

2. Gauge the size. 

3. Plane with jack plane, and true up with jointer, and try square. 

Lesson XXIV. 
Planing to Width. 

1. Take one-half inch board about six feet long, eight to ten inches 
wide, and saw off strip four and one-half inches wide. 

2. Plane with jointer to four and one-fourth inch. 

3. Saw off two pieces eight inches long for sides, and two pieces 
four and one-half inches long for ends of a box. 

4. Square edges and smooth faces with block plane. 

Lesson XXY. 

Dovetail. 

1. Set single gauge to. nine- sixteenth of an inch, and square around 
the ends of pieces prepared in last lesson. 

2. Mark for dovetails. 

3. Form dovetails, using one-half inch and one-fourth inch chisel, 
and cutting from both sides. 

Lesson XXYL 

Dovetail {completed). 

1. Finish up and fit dovetails. 

2. Glue together and clamp with hand screws, taking care to bring 
the joints up, and to keep the box square, using try square at every 
corner. 

Lesson XXYIL 

Smoothing and Sand-papering. 

1. Saw out two pieces five and one-half inches by nine inches for 
top and bottom of box. 

2. Square up edges and smooth faces. 

3. Smooth sides and ends of box with block plane. 

4. Sand-paper, clean and smooth. 

5. Level off top and bottom edges. 

Lesson XXYIII. 

N'ailing. 

1. Nail on top and bottom pieces with one and one fourth inch 
16 wire nails, being careful to drive the nails straight and in the cen- 
ter of thickness of sides and ends. 



Industrial Education Commission. 71 

Molding. 

2. Get piece forty inches long, seven-eighths inch square, from 
stock. 

3. Square to five-eighths of an inch, and quarter round with jack 
plane ; making a molding for bottom of box. 

4. Get from stock, piece forty inches long, one-half inch square. 

5. Square to three-eighths of an inch, and quarter round ; making 
a molding for top of box. 

Lesson XXIX. 

Mitreing. 

Saw molding, made in last lesson, in lengths to fit box (mitreing 
the corners in mitre box), and glue them on the box. 

Lessson XXX. 

Beveling. 

1. Plane the edges of the top and bottom of box with block plane 
to an equal projection all around. 

2. Mark the top, with single gauge, one inch on, and one-fourth inch 
down. 

3. Bevel with one and one-fourth of an inch chisel and finish with 
block plane, and sand-paper block. 

Lksson XXXI. 
Chiseling. 
1. Cut a whole exactly in center of top, one and three fourth of an 
inch long, one eighth of an inch wide. Using one-eighth of an inch 
chisel. 

Lesson XXX [I. 

1. Finish up the box, with moldings, etc., according to individual 
fancy. 

Drawing. 

The character of the work done in drawing is shown in the following 
extract from the superinfendent's report for 1888 : 

Much has been said and written of late on the wisdom of leaven- 
ing public education with certain forms of industrial training. As the 
value of this departure is to be determined by actual experiment 
rather than by argument it is only necessary here to state what has 
been attempted the past year. 

Interest in this department has been well sustained. Consid- 
erably more attention has been given to object drawing in all 
grades than formerly. The study of exact forms through the sense of 
sight and touch is made the basis of this instruction. Through clay 
molding, paper cutting and folding and designing, ideas gained from 
models are realized by actual making, and so a foundation is laid for 
all future industrial training. 



72 Keport of the 

In the higher work in free-hand drawing the element of construc- 
tion, representation and decoration are taught. It is found that pupils 
take pleasure in representing familiar objects. The more drawing is 
taught as a form of expression and applied in connection with all 
branches of instruction the more educational it will become. 

The aim of the course of instruction in mechanical drawing has 
been to develop the power of mentally picturing objects in space, 
and to enable the scholar to express his conceptions on paper with 
clearness and accuracy. Any one who is familiar with the use of 
working drawings will recognize the importance of each of these 
points. 

In order to drill the scholars in accurate habits and in the proper 
use of their instruments the course was commenced with a few simple 
geometrical exercises, to be drawn with the triangles and compasses, 
as for example : 

To draw a straight line perpendicular to anotht^r (a) through a 
point on the line, (b) through a point without the line. 

To dravj an arc of a circle of given radius, tangent (a) to two other 
arcs., (b) to a straight line and an arc of a circle. 

In every exercise dimensions were assigned which the scholars 
were expected to follow minutely, and the drawings were frequently 
tested and compared with the scale. 

These primary lessons were followed by instruction on the plans 
and elevations of solids, such as the square and hexagonal pyramids, 
and the cone, and the pupils were taught by simple methods to con- 
struct and to represent on paper the coverings or envelopes of these 
solids. 

At this stage of the work the scholars were thrown on their own 
resources and were required to work from dictation, without any assist- 
ance from copies or models, such exercises as the following : 

Draw the plan, elevation and envelope of (a) a square prism ; (b) 
a cule ; (c) a cylinder ; (d) an hexagonal prism in di^fferent positions 
and inclified at different angles according to given dimensions. 

These simple geometrical solids were constructed in cardboard by 
each scholar, who was thus familiarized with the forms in detail and 
was enabled to see clearly the connection between the representation 
on paper and the object in space. 

The remainder of the course included instruction in section draw- 
ing, illustrated by solid and hollow objects: in finding the envelope 
or form in the flat of a piece of flexible material, bent into the shape 
of an elbow pipe, in constructing the helix or curve of the screw ; in 
finding the intersection of (a) two cylinders, (b) a cylinder and a 
prism, and the scholar was taught how to construct the curves of in- 
tersection of pipes of different forms and proportions. 

A short series of lessons has also been given in oblique or pictorial 
projection drawing, by means of which the form of an object is more 



Industrial Education Commission. 73 

readily understood than by the plan and elevation. Its use is some- 
what analogous to the more complicated perspective drawing. The 
three dimensions of the object to be represented were given and the 
scholar was required to combine them in one view. The application 
of this method of representation to practical work will appear when, 
during the ensuing year, the scholar is called upon to draw the exam- 
ples of joining work which he executes in the manual training school. 
Further lessons will be given in the different methods of joining, such 
as mortising, dovetailing, etc., etc., and the endeavor will be made to 
maintain a close connection between the drawing, as carried on in the 
class room, and the practical work which is done in the manual train- 
ing school." 

General Results. 

The growth of this branch of training in public favor is indicated 
from the fact that durina: the last year, 1888, ''two hundred and forty 
boys have attended regularly and the interest has been good. When 
these classes were organized a few years ago, some parents questioned 
the value of this training; there are few but endorse it now. Mr. 
John Purcell, the instructor, reports that a large number of the boys 
became proficient in sharpening the tools used. During the last three 
months of the course, special and useful articles were constructed to 
the number of two hundred and fifty. A"ver7 creditable exhibition 
of this work was made." 

"The excellent work performed by young children in the primary 
schools," is described in one of the leading newspapers of the city, 
under date of January 19, 1889, as follows: 

" In the rooms of the board of education are on exhibition several 
boxes of clay work made in the lower primary grades by children be- 
tween the ages of five and eight years. There are different forms of 
spheres, cubes, cylinders and prisms, and all are very perfectly molded. 
There are also representations of various kinds of fruits, and the mold- 
ing is very true to the natural forms. The idea of drilling these small 
children in clay molding is to inculcate a basis of the knowledge of 
form. Thus far this teaching has been very successful and has broad- 
ened the observing powers of the pupils. White clay is used. Each 
pupil is given a small portion, the material being worked into differ- 
ent shapes on a paper laid on the child's desk. 

This teaching is intended for the first two years in the primary 
grades and a portion of the third year. The next higher work is in 
making the same Ibrms in pastboord and paper. There are also some 
fine specimens of this work at the executive rooms of the school dis- 
trict. It is intended to select some of the best work in claj^ and paper 
to combine with the educational exhibit which will be sent to the 
Paris exposition. The particular interest is in the fact that such per- 
fect work has been produced by children of such tender years." 



74 Keport of the 



IV. FLORIDA. 

The Hon. A. J. Russell, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
writes as follows : 

"At Jacksonville, October 4, 1887, we built a large two story build- 
ing on the grounds of the colored graded schools for the purpose of es- 
tablishing tool-craft training and instruction in the trades, the lower 
floor for the boys and the upper floor for the girls, employed experi- 
enced teachers and fully equipped the school and started the work, 
which has been most successful so far, sixty finely developed boys and 
fifty-eight girls entering the school. 

This school is in full blast and receives $1,000 a year from the 
Slater fund in support of it. 

During the last summer we built a commodious building — 'Me- 
chanic Arts Hall ' — on the grounds of the State College, 90 by 45 feet 
in size, and fully equipped it to training in wood work, with benches, 
jig and slit saws, lathes and full sets of tools, and October 1, 1888, 
started it out upon its mission, with every student in college in enthu- 
siastic attendance. Many of the principal schools in the cities and 
towns have introduced the ordinary tools of the trades and placed a 
bench and table in th^^ ^ uilding, and the pupils are being made famil- 
iar with their use. 

This is our beginning; we hope to press it to the front until we shall 
make our system of public education thoroughly practical. In our 
normal schools (State) we are training our teachers of both races for 
this work when they shall go into the school soon as teachers." 

The State of Florida has never legislated on the subject of manual 
training, but the following regulation, adopted by the State Board of 
Education, was furnished the Commission by Superintendent Russell: 

Regulation 7. — The State Board of Education are deeply impressed 
with the fact that the large majority of the children in attendance 
upon the public schools are the children of the poorer people, and will 
fill the large and important classes of farmers, workmen, mechanics 
and artisans of the State, and that to impart to them only the knowl- 
edge to be derived from the school books, excellent and necessary as 
it is, will but illy equip them for the sphere of life to which in Provi- 
dence and circumstances they are very sure to be called, are still more 
impressed with the necessity of imparting to them some knowledge 
(to the boys especially) of the useful and necessary tools and imple- 
ments used in the arts and trades, and to the girls some training in 
sewing, cookery and housewifery in general, by simple illustrative 
lectures or talks upon their use, and the general principles involved^ 



Industrial Education Commission. 75 

so that a taste may be cultivated for these very useful and important 
vocations in life, and some knowledge imparted of them, but mainly 
to impress them with a true and proper conception of the honor and 
dignity of honest labor. County superintendents and boards of pub- 
lic instruction are urgently and specially called upon to give their 
earnest attention to this very important feature of school work and 
instruction. 



76 Report of the 



V. GEORGIA. 



1. Atlanta University. 

The mechanical course of the " Atlanta University," as laid out in 
the catalogue of 188^-8, is as follows: 

'• At present the course covers three years ; two of wood-working 
and one of metal-working. Another year of metal-working will, it 
is expected, be added soon. It is required of all boys above the third 
grade, in addition to their regular studies in other courses. Seven 
and a half hours each week are given to this work. 

It is the aim, during this time, to teach the use of tools and the 
principles of wood-working and metal- working. Those having finished 
this course who have the ability and the desire to become finished 
workmen in some one of the trades, will have the opportunity to do so. 

First Year. 

The use and care of the common wood-working tools, as the ham- 
mer, saw, plane, try square, gauge, rale, chisel, mallet, bit and brace, 
bevel, steel square, draw-knife, dividers, screw-drivers. 

The general principles of wood working, as sewing, planing, 
marking, chamfering, boring, mortising, tenoning, halving, grooving, 
matching, mitreing, beveling, dovetailing, gluing, steaming and bend- 
ing, driving nails and screws, sandpapering. 

Working drawings with steel square and pencil. Measuring lumber. 

Secojsd Year. 

Further use of tools and some application of principles in con- 
struction. 

The use of the wood-turning lathe and jig saw. 
First steps in patternmaking. 
Glazing. 
Mechanical drawing. 

Third Year. 

The use and care of the blacksmith's forge and tools, as the anvil 
hand and sledge hammers, tongs, punches, hot and cold chisels, head- 
ing tools, swaging tools, files. 

The building and care of the fire, the proper degrees of heat for 
iron and steel. 

The general principles of forging, as drawing, bending, upsetting, 
spreading, welding. 

The tempering of steel. 



Industrial Education Commission. 77 

Chipping and filing to line, gauge and surface. Polishing. 

Mechanical drawing, continued." 

The course is still incomplete for want of equipment. 

The boys of the college, college preparatory and normal couises, 
and the first two grades of the Grammar School course, take the 
above course. They are also taught some of the principles of farm- 
ing and gardening. Attention is given to the raising and care of 
stock, to the raising of fodder crops, their comparative value and fit- 
ness for this soil and climate. The cultivation of vegetables is en- 
couraged by competition and prizes for the best results. 

An outfit of type and other printing material has been purchased 
for the instruction in printing, a press has been recently given, and 
additions of material will be made as funds allow." 

The building for the use of the mechanical department was erected 
by private subscription, in 1884. 

It is of brick, one hundred by forty-four feet and three stories high. 
One room, forty by fifty feet, is furnished with thirty cabinet benches, 
each fitted out with the following tools: Kip saw, cut-off" saw, panel 
saw, back saw, compass saw, claw hammer, hatchet, mallet, jack 
plane, jointing plane, smoothing plane, block plane, four paring 
chisels, two mortising chisels, six bits and countersink, bit-brace, rule, 
steel square, try square, bevel, dividers, gauge, drawknife, spoke 
shave, screw drive, brad awl, nail-set, oil stone and oil can. 

In another room are twelve wood turning lathes, run by steam 
power. More machinery has been added the past year for wood -work. 
An addition for a forge room has recently been erected, and twelve 
forges and anvils have been in use during the present year. 

A large room has been fitted up for the mechanical drawing, and 
has been in use since January, 1888, the furniture having been made 
by the students, as most of that in the building has been." 

2. Georgia School of Technology. 

The following extracts from the ''Act to establish a technological 
school," will show the purpose and general plan of the Georgia 
School of Technology at Atlanta. 

* * * '^That there shall be established, in connection with the 
State University and forming one of the departments thereof, a tech- 
nological school for the education and training of students in the in- 
dustrial and mechanical arts. 

* * * u rpijg^^ there shall be one beneficiary for each representa- 
tive in the General Assembly from every county in this State, selected 
by the board of education in each county on competitive examination, 
and who shall be first entitled to the benefits of said school; that the 
tuition in said school shall be free to all students who are residents of 
the State of Georgia. The rates of tuition to others than residents of 
the State shall not exceed one hundred and fifty dollars per annum." 



78 Report op the 

In conformity with this act of the Legislature, the leading object of 
the school is to teach the principles of science, especially those which 
relate to the mechanic and industrial arts. 

The school was formerly opened October 5, 1888, with ninety-five 
young men in attendance. The following extract from the opening 
address delivered by the superintendent of the machine shop, indi- 
cates the purpose and methods of the school more in detail. (The 
references to the Worcester, Mass., shops show the kind of institution 
taken as a model for this school.) 

" The method here will be simple and direct. We aim to place the 
student, during his course of training here, in an environment not 
unlike what he may expect to find when he enters the active duties 
of life. 

First of all we recognize the shop as a means of education, training, 
even culture. This is the highest object of the shops in any school of 
this character. The friends of this school do not ignore the intrinsic 
value of the skill attained in the shops, but as valuable as this is. the 
greatest value of shop training to the man and to the engineer is the 
marked effective influence upon the mind and character of the pupil. 
It has been shown that most of the active, managing men of a city are 
men w^hose boj^hood has been spent on country farms. Now, there is 
no virtue necessarily in farm work or country life, except that the in- 
dividual is brought into close contact with things. They meet and 
overcome many difficulties, and this experience develops sound judg- 
ment and ability to manage affairs in a most remarkable manner. 
This developing influence upon the character is exactly what the 
shops of a technological school accomplish. 

It follows then — if difficulties overcome, educate and develop — we 
must have a real shop, where real difficulties are overcome, and where 
real successes are achieved. A play shop cannot do it. A productive 
shop is a complicated affair. It is a new condition in a school and de- 
mands special methods. The shop and its methods must be real, 
■alive, effective. All the men in the shop must be working men, de- 
voting all the business hours of the week to productive work, the 
same as in other shops. They are all there as teachers of what they 
know, but their teaching is largely by example with such explana- 
tions as may naturally go with their work. All the shopmen may 
understand that the object of the shop is educational, but, in order 
that sound business may be taught and illustrated, every efi'ort must 
tend to economical production. 

The plan of operating the shop is as follows : 

The Georgia school shops recognize that their object is educational, 
first and last. This is not a trade school. It is more. It aims to make 
mechanical engineers, manufacturers, managers of industrial works of 
all kinds. It will teach a trade, i. e.. it will develop manual dexterity 
because that is a most desirable and necessary step up to the end 



Industrial Education Commission. 79 

sought. It may produce journeymen, if you please, not as the end 
of the training, but the education of the engineer should include, to 
some extent, the experience that the journeymen possesses, the ac- 
curacy of the machinist, the skill of the patternmaker and thesi^ecial 
knowledge of the blacksmith and foundryman. And we believe there 
is no way so sure, so good and so simple to realize these possessions as 
to enter the ranks and learn them as if future success depended upon 
the narrow knowledge of these trades alone. 

We, therefore, aim to have the education of the students lead up 
through these steps so that if a boy starts with a class of a hundred to 
master all that would make him a successful engineer or manager of 
larger industrial interests, and he fails to attain his full object, that 
whatever be the cause of his failing of high leadership, his education 
at this school shall not be by any means a failure. Dexterity in any 
art or trade is a step to something higher. Whoever stops at one 
step has the dexterity that is as valuable to him and more so than if 
he had started in life to learn the trade only. There are many things 
to prevent all in a class of a hundred from being eminent leaders in 
mechanical pursuits. Of course, there is always room at the top, and. 
thank God, there is room all the way up from the man who knows 
well what h'e knows and can do it well. 

In starting a class of young men in the Worcester shops it is my 
practice to show them first that they must very soon find within them- 
selves a love and respect for their calling. They are taught at once 
that nothing is more promising of reward and honor and success than 
the pursuit of science, of mechanics and the industries ; and the school 
of technology is not a rival or a substitute for the college ; that pro- 
fessional men, our statesmen, professors, lawyers, doctors and ministers 
have all been held in honor justly, because of their training, because 
of their characters and because of their culture, and thus they have 
made their professions honorable. Now, the time is at hand when a 
mechanical engineer, a manufacturer, has every need and every in- 
ducement and every facility for obtaining all that makes any man 
worthy of the esteem of his fellows, viz : education in its truest sense. 

We teach them at Worcester not to be disappointed or discouraged 
if at first there is a failure to find much love in the chosen work, but 
such a love can and must be developed. A loving, devoted dwelling 
upon the beauties of mechanical science is as possible and necessary 
to the successful mechanic or engineer as devotion is in any profession. 
They are taught at once that there is no conflict between practice and 
theory ; none at all. Education is as desirable and possible in one 
pursuit as in another, though it may be of a very diff'erent sort. 

At Worcester we receive into the shop each year about thirty pupils, 
at an average age of eighteen to nineteen years. They remain three 
and a half years. After the first month they are in the shop only two 
half days per week, i. e. ten hours per week during term time. 



80 . Report of the 

After about two months they are put at productive work, and some- 
limes much sooner. We are ever holding more strongly to the method 
of productive work as a means of education. At the end of thecource 
of three and a half years, our graduates have enough practical shop 
instruction to compete with young men who have devoted three years 
entirely to the learning of a trade, and in addition they have the 
advantages of their scholastic education." 

Candidates for admission to the apprentice class must be at least 
sixteen years old, must be of good moral character and must pass ex- 
amination in the following studies, viz : 

Arithmetic, including elementary principals, fractions, compound 
quantities, percentage and interest, and proportion. 

English, including grammatical construction of sentence, compo- 
sitions of letters showing proficiency in spelling, punctuation and 
division into paragraphs. 

Geography, particularly that of the United States. 

History of the United States. 

Candidates lor admission to advanced classes must be of relatively 
proper age, and must show that they are qualified to enter the class 
for which they apply, either by certificate of work done at other in- 
stitutions or by examination. 

Tliere is no charge for tuition to residents of the State of Georgia. 
All others pay a tuition fee of $150. 

Every student, of whatever place of residence, pays an annual fee 
of $20 dollars to cover contingent expenses. 

A contingent fee of $5 is required to be deposited with the treas- 
urer on entrance to cover injury done to college buildings or furniture, 
which sum is returned to the student on leaving college, if not for- 
feited. 

Books, stationery, drawing material and drawing instruments are 
estimated to cost about $:^5 the first year, and from $5 to $10 per year 
thereaiter. 

The departments of instruction include English language, drawing, 
mechanical engineering, physics, chemistry, geology and mineralogy. 

The school oilers an education of high grade, founded on the math- 
ematic, tiie English language, the physical sciences and drawing, 
while ii gives such famijiarity with some industrial pursuits as will 
enable the graduate to earn a living. 

There are no elective courses, each student being required to I'ol- 
low the prescribed course, both mechanical and scholastic. The time 
and atieiiLion of students are duly proportioned between scholastic 
and mecnanical pursuits, and special prominence is given to the ele- 
ment of practice in every department. 

To thorough supervision and instruction in handicrafts are added 
the stimulus of protection for the market and such other conditions 



Industrial Educational Commission. 81 

as are likely to be met with in the active business of life. Students 
do not receive money compensation for their work. 

Instruction is given by recitations, lectures and practice. Kecita- 
tions are an hour in length, and classes are so divided into sections as 
to give equal advantages to all members, and so as to insure faithful 
performance of duty. 

Practice is given in physical and chemical laboratories as well as in 
the work shops. Students are required to take notes and undergo 
examinations on lectures. 

The following is the scheme of work in detail (the figures indicate 
hours per work) : 

Apprentice Class, — Mathematics, 5. English, 5. Free Drawing, 5. 
Elementary Mechanics, 2. Physics and Chemistry, 2. Practice, 20. 

Junior Class. — Mathematics, 5. English, 5. Chemistry and Min- 
eralogy, 5. Physics, 3. Free Drawing, 2. Mechanical Drawing, 5. 
Practice, 10. 

Middle Class.— M^diihemdiiic^^^h. English, 5. Physics, 5. Mechan- 
ical Drawing, 6. Practice, lO. 

Senior Class. — Mathematics (first half year), 5. Applied Me- 
chanics, 5. Physics, 5. Chemical Technology, 3. Practice, 10. 

The workshop is of brick, two hundred and fifty feet long by 
eighty wide, and two stories high. It is beautifully designed with 
reference to its use, and afi'ords ample space for the various depart- 
ments of instruction pursued in it. It contains boiler and engine 
rooms, wood-shop, machine-shop, forge room and foundry. 



6 Ed. Com. 



82 Report of the 



VI. ILLINOIS. 

1. Beardstown. 

The superintendent of public schools, Beardstown, 111., has kindly 
sent the Commission a copy of his " Report of Work in Manual Train- 
ing," made to the State Superintendent. It covers so many points 
that we give it entire : 

" Our work in manual training may be classed under the following 
heads : 

'^ 1. Primary ' busy work,' which consists in manipulating different 
forms of matter as splints, paper, clay, sand, etc. 

'* 2. The constructing of relief maps and the modeling of various 
other forms. 

"3. The making of geometrical and other figures to be used in the 
study of mathematics. These figures are made from card-board and wood. 

"4. The constructing of simple apparatus to be used in the study 
of physics. 

"5. Industrial drawing which is taught in all departments of the 
school. 

"6. Shop work, which embraces at present wood- carving, joinery, 
and scroll-work We hope soon to add lathes for wood-turning. 

''As the first five points differ but little from the work of many 
schools, and since it is common to think of manual training only in 
connection with tools and shop work I will speak more especially of 
this part of the work. At the beginning of the fall term '87 the 
board of education furnished one of the basement rooms with benches 
and wood-working tools. A teacher was employed to give instruc- 
tion to classes of boys in wood-work, devoting half his time to it. We 
have now entered upon the second year with this work. The shop is 
furnished with six cabinet benches, two vises to each and two sets of 
tools for each. Four classes of boys, selected from the seventh and 
eighth grades and numbering about fifty, do the work of the shop. 

''Two classes work each day about one hour each, the classes alter- 
nating so that each class works an average of two and a half hours 
per week. The department is now in charge of Mr. J. N. McQuil- 
kin, a graduate of the St. Louis Manual Training School. As ob- 
served above, the instructor devotes but half his time to the shop 
work, the remaining time being devoted to teaching other branches, 
principally arithmetic and drawing. The purpose of the shop work 
is to train boys to a systematic use of wood- working tools. To 
effect this, exercises are given in the use of the plane, saw, square, 
hammer, chisel, gouge, brace and bit, and a few other tools. Draw- 



Industrial Education Commission. 83 

ings are first made by the pupil, and he works carefully and accur- 
ately from these. Aside from the simple apparatus, geometrical forms, 
etc., mentioned above, each pupil is allowed to complete some given 
article during the term; but the work consists chiefly of exercises 
designed to develop mathematical and mechanical skill, and to train 
to a right use and care of the tools. 

Purpose. 

" In addition to what has already been indicated concerning the 
purpose of the manual training, I may add that it is not the purpose 
to make mechanics, or even to impart very much or very superior 
mechanical skill. Our course of study is designed to embrace two 
years shop work. 

"The same considerations which have induced school boards in 
many places to adopt the use of tools and shop work, led our board to 
make the experiment. It may not be out of place here to give a 
synopsis of these considerations. 

"1. Boys in the higher grammar grades become restive, tired of 
school, and manifest an irrepressible desire to be doing something out- 
side of school. It was hoped that the interest and variety of half an 
hour's shop work each day would satisfy this desire and hold the boys 
for a longer time in school. 

"2. Since it is the purpose of education to develop all the powers of 
mind and body, it was thought that practice with tools would develop 
the constructive talent which at the age referred to is struggling to 
free itself. It was farther believed that germs of talent might in this 
way be discovered that might otherwise remain hidden. 

"3. Since the law of action and reaction applies in mental as well 
as physical forces, it was believed that the work of the regular curri- 
culum would be both quickened and strengthened by vigorous think- 
ing and doing — i. e., by planning and executing some material thing. 

'*' 4. The above considerations were supplemented by an economic 
view. The advantage to every person, whatever his station or voca- 
tion in life, of being "handy" with tools was deemed sufficient to 
justify the introduction of tool work. 

"5. A more far reaching, economic view was the one frequently 
urged by magazine writers and advocates of manual training gener- 
ally, namely, that it is the business of the school to counteract as far 
as possible the too prevalent and growing idea that physical toil is 
degrading to manhood; that to be educated is to be able to earn a 
living without soiling the hands, etc. 

Expense. 

" The following statement will show approximately the cost of in- 
augurating and carrying forward the work : 



84 Report of the 

6 Cabinet benches, $100 

12 Sets of tools, 50 

Additional tools for general use, 15 

Fixtures and furniture, 25 

Incidentals, 10 

Total, . $200 

Annual cost of carrying on the work : 

Instruction, $250 

Material, 25 

Repairs, 15 

Incidentals, 10 

Total, $500 

Results. 

"We have hardly been at work long enough to speak of results. 
Accuracy, patience, and a quickening of the observing powers are 
noticeable, however. The teachers affirm that the boys who do this 
work are more proficient in arithmetic^ drawing^ and in orderly and 
systematic arrangement of work than those who do not. Improvement 
in individual cases has been observed in the above respects, after 
taking up the work. 

'' The attendance of boys has been considerably increased in the 
upper grades since the introduction of the shop work. Other causes 
have doubtless contributed to this, but it is fair to conclude that the 
manual training has contributed its share. 

"A few boys, who are exceedingly dull in the other work, are among 
the best in drawing and shop work. The reverse is also true. Again, 
others who are excellent in the regular work excel also in this. 

"I may add that, as yet, we have nothing corresponding to the 
shop work for girls. We have agitated somewhat the subject of plain 
sewing and textile work, but have done nothing definite in this di- 
rection. 

The work that we are doing is enjoyed very much by the boys, 
and, though the work is optional., all the places are full and we cannot 
supply the demand for opportunities to loork. 

'' We are satisfied with the experiment ; it meets with almost uni- 
versal favor on the part of patrons and citizens." [The italics are 
ours.] 

2. Chicago Manual Training School. 

The Chicago Manual Training School was founded by the Commer- 
cial Club of Chicago, the necessary funds being subscribed March 25, 

1882. 



Industrial Education Commisscon. 85 

The object of the school, as stated in the articles of incorporation, 
was '• instruction and practice in the use of tools, with such instruc- 
tion as may be deemed necessary in mathematics, drawing and the 
English branches of a high school course, it being the intention to di- 
vide the working hours of the students, as nearly as possible, equally 
between manual and mental exercises." 

Candidates for admission to the junior year must be at least four- 
teen years of age, and must pass a satisfactory examination in read- 
ing, spelling, writing, geography, English composition and arithmetic. 

''Before entering this school boys should be able to spell correctly 
words in general use, to punctuate properly, and to express them- 
selves in good English. They ought to have formed the habit of con- 
sulting dictionaries and other reference books, so as to be able readily 
to extract an author's meaning from a page of ordinary English. They 
ought also to be familiar with the fundamental operations of arithme- 
tic as applied to integers, fractions, denominate numbers, including 
simple measuration and percentage." 

Pupils desiring to study Latin must pass a special examination in 
English grammar. Boys who have completed a grammar school 
course should have no difficulty in passing the examination for admis- 
sion. 

The full course of study, covering three years, is as follows : 

Junior Year. 

1. Mathematics. — Algebra, Geometry. 

2. Science. — Physiology, Physical Geography. 

3. Language. — English Language and Literature or Latin. 

4. Bvawinp. — Free-hand, Model and Object, Projection, Machine, 
Perspective. 

5. Shop Work. — Carpentry, Joinery, Wood-Turning, Pattern Mak- 
ing, Proper care and Use of Tools. 

Middle Year. 

1. Mathematics. — Geometry, Plane Trigonometry. 

2. Science. — Phyoics. 

3. Language. — General History and English Literature or Latin. 

4. Drawing. — Orthographic Projection and Shadows, Line and 
Brush Shading, Isometric Projection and Shadows, Details and Ma- 
chinery, Machines from Measurement. 

5. Shop Work. — Molding, Casting, Forging, Welding, Tempering, 
Soldering, Brazing. 

Senior Year. 

1. Mathematics. — Mechanics, Book-Keeping. 

2. Science. — Chemistry or Descriptive Geometry and Higher Al- 
gebra. 



86 Eeport of the 

3. Language^ etc. — English Literature, Civil Government, Political 
Economy, or Latin, or French. 

4. Drawing. — Machine from Measurement, Building from Measure- 
ment, Architectural Perspective. 

5. Machine Shop Work. — Chipping, Filing, Fitting, Turning, Drill- 
ing, Planing, etc.; Study of Machinery, Management and Care of 
Steam Engines and Boilers. 

The student is not only taught the use of tools, but '' instruction is 
given each year in the production, properties and uses of the materi- 
als — wood, iron, steel, brass, etc. — used in that year. 

'' Throughout the course one hour each day is given to drawing and 
two hours each day to shop work. The remainder of each school day 
is devoted to study and recitation. A diploma testifying to scholar- 
ship and skill is given on graduation. To those who have not satis- 
factorily completed the three years' course are given certificates of 
proficiency in whatever departments of study and practice their work 
has reached the required standard. These certificates are exchangable 
for diplomas whenever the full course shall have been finished to the 
satisfaction of the school authorities. Certificates are given only to 
pupils who have been three years in the school, and who have been 
prevented by ill health, or other unavoidable cause, from completing 
the course. Boys are not admitted to partial courses. 

'^ To meet the requirements of different technological schools which 
graduates may desire to enter, pupils are permitted, with the approval 
of the directors, the choice of Latin and French instead of the English 
language and literature, and descriptive geometry and higher algebra 
instead of chemistry. 

*• Upon the recommendation of the director, graduates of this school 
are admitted without examination and free of conditions to the School 
of Mechanics and Engineering of Purdee University, Lafayette, Ind ; 
the Polytechnic School of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.; 
Sibley College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; Kose Polytechnic 
Institute, Terre Haute, Ind." 

In the awarding of prizes, equal importance is attached to scholar- 
ship, drawing and shop work — three being offered for each, and one 
prize to the member of the graduating class who has maintained the 
most satisfactory record in every respect during the entire course of 
three years. 

In addition to lectures given in connection with the regular courses, 
several series on American history have been planned "with the de- 
sign of cultivating a patriotic and law-abiding spirit as one of the 
foundations of good citizenship." 

In judging of the results of the work it is to be borne in mind that 
'' education not manufacture is the idea underlying the manual train- 
ing." The exercises are therefore chiefly " designed to develop skill 
in the us3 of tools, but, ''the educational value of construction is 



Industrial Education Commission. 87 

also recognized, and the course embraces a number of finished arti- 
cles." 

Some idea of the pupils' work during the year 1887-8 maybe gained 
from the following list : 

Work Done in the Wood Room. 
(a) Carpentry. 
96 exercises in planing and sawing. 

864 exercises in joinery, including tongue and groove joints, mortise and tenon joints, 
square and oblique dovetail joints, dovetail scarf joints, keyed scarf joints and 
frames with keyed mortise and tenon joints and braces. 
672 small drawing models, including triangular square, pentagonal and hexagonal 
frames, cubical frame, double cross, etc. 

(&) Wood-turning. 
600 exercises in soft wood giving practice in roughing down, straight paring work, 

concave and convex curves, Vs, beads, etc. 
648 exercises in hard-wood turning. 
144 hard-wood tool handles. 
96 hard-wood rosettes. 
200 white maple dumbbells. 
144 turned inoldings for cabinet work. 

1 globe and stand. 

(c) Cabinet Work. 

192 exercises in drawer dovetails (front and back). 

24 chalk holders for school room. 
216 exercises in mitered ornamental picture frames. 
4 large drawing models. 

24 fancy work boxes. 

4 ladies' work tables. 

2 book-cases for school rooms. 

5 revolving book -cases. 

1 center table. 

2 pedestals. 

{d) Pattern-making. 

48 patterns of hexagonal wrench. 

48 patterns of journal brass. 

96 patterns of square grate. 

24 patterns of building braces. 

48 patterns of quarter turn and half turn flanged pipe with case boxes. 

Middle Class — School Year 1887-€. 
Forge Department — Exercises. 

Preparatory in lead, 240 

In Iron. 

Drawing, 135 

Upsetting, 130 

Bending (rings and links), 183 

Gate hooks, 65 

Double hooks, 66 

Pointed eyebolts, 62 

Staples, 130 

Chain locks, 61 

Nails, ■ • • . . 250 

Bolts, square and hexagonal, 140 

Nuts, square and hexagonal, 125 

WeldiDg, fagot lap, and " T " welds, 248 



88 Report of the 

Rings, band and flat or washer, 135 

Rings and eyebolts, 330 

Chains, hooks, links, swivels and rings, 630 

Shelf brackets, 65 

Angle or corner braces, 66 

Blacksmith tongs, 95 

Fire shovels, 20 

Heading tools steel faced, 40 

Wrenches for wood lathes, 16 

Exercises in brazing and sweating, 40 

3,070 
Steel Forging and Tempebing. 

Tools all Cast Steel. 

Cold chisels, flat, 60 

Cape chisels 30 

For Woodwork, 

Firmer chisels, 12 

Socket chisels, 2 

Turning chisels, 3 

Lathe Tools. 
Diamond point, square and round nose front side tools (right and left), thread 
and cutting off tools and inside or boring tools ; also reamers and drills ; in 
all, ....>.... 65 

Hammers. 
Balle pene, cross pene and claw hammers, in all, 18 

18 

Extra. — Pipe tongs, gas pliers (steel), pincers (steel), screw-drivers, scratch awls, 
center punches, magnets, fencing foils, horse shoes, forgings for engines, bolts, cut 
off rods, straps and keys and forgings for thirty-two jack screws. 

Projects. — 3 hall lamps, 4 piano lamp stands, 2 dictionary stands, 1 flower stand 
and grate rack with poker, tongs and shovel. 

Steal Tools for Shop Use. 
7 flatters, 8 set hammers, 4 chisels (handle), 4 bottom fullers and 1 eye punch. 

Foundry Work. 
* Melting in Soft Metals. 
Molding parts of speed lathes and engines, hangers for shaftings (including boxes 
and oil cups), pulleys, shearer pulleys, gears, bevel and mitre, washers, nuts, 
wrenches, valves, swivels, ornamental patterns, etc. 

Work Done in Machine Shop 1887-88. 
By Senior Class. 

74 exercises, chipping and filing. 
74 exercises, filing, boring and turning. 
74 exercises, lathe work and filing. 
62 exercises, planing and filing. 

6 taps. 

2 reamers. 

9 tools for making engines. 

6 eight horse-power steam engines. 
40 jack screws. 
12 tile breakers. 

2 bench screws. 



Industrial Education Commission. 89 

2 wood room vises. 

2 wood room spurs. v 

1 Counter shaft. 

Projects : 
4 six horse-power steam engines. 
1 small steam engine. 

1 wood lathe. 

2 dynamos. 

2 cameras. 

3 set taps and dies. 

1 grindstone, frame, shaft, etc. 
1 electric motor. 

Work in Drawing. 

Junior Class. 

Drawings, 3,588 

Sketches, 1,748 

5,336 

Middle Class. 

Drawings, 520 

Sketches, 1,235 

1,755 

Senior Class. 

Drawings, 144 

Sketches, 360 

504 

Total, • 7,595 

The first-class was organized February 4th, 1884, and was graduated 
June 24th, 1886. 

The following extracts from reports of committees chosen from the 
architects and manufacturers of the city to examine and report upon 
the character of the work done by this first class, will show how prac- 
tical business men looked upon the results obtained. 

" Since our examination of the work on view was expectedto be general, we can 
only express ourselves in general terms ; and yet it seems that we should particu- 
larize somewhat, where drawings are so deservedly meritorious. The work of free- 
hand drawing, and drawing from the round, include some very clever productions, 
which older draftsmen than those who made them might well be proud of. The care- 
ful drawing of the locomotives, from actual measurements, are deserving of atten- 
tion and praise. There are specimens in mechanical drawing, both geometrical and 
perspective, which are admirable, while some of the architectural drawings presented 
are of superior character. The line-drawing of the elevation of a residence, the per- 
spective of another, the production of scale-drawings, from actual measurements of 
the Manual Training School Building, and the perspective drawings of the same 
building, all indicate careful study Irom careful training. There seemed to be less 
careless handling and poor drawing exhibited, for the number displayed, than is usual 
in older schools and in larger institutions. 

" We are pleased to extend our congratulations upon the success so far attained by 
your institution, which we hastily visited in detail after the examination of the draw- 
ings ; and we believe the work which you have inaugurated here will develop into 
one of tlie strong arms of education, and will be a powerful agent for good in the fu- 
ture, in the development of skilled and educated mechanics. 

"These schools in the future, we believe, will break down the society lines, which 
all, or most all, building-trade societies have fenced tliemselves in with, and will as- 
sist to send out able and skilled artisans in the building trades, regardless of their 
laws and edicts, and will also tend to so elevate the industrial arts to a degree that 
many ayoung man may be proud to be known as a mechanic.'''' 



90 Report of the 

" Dear Sir : Responding to the request of Mr. H. H. Belfield, T inspected the wood- 
work of your Junior class, consisting of turning, sawing, moldings, carving, dove- 
tailing, jointing, framing and constr action ; and I am pleased to bear testimony to 
the M^ork being a credit both to the pupils and their instructors — comparing very 
favorably with that done by many who profess to be finished mechanics ; which goes 
to sliow very plainly that the education in the use of mechanical tools cannot begin 
too early in life to make the perfect workman." 



" Your committee, who were requested to examine and report castings, etc, made 
by the pupils in the institution, would respectfully report that we have examined 
various sarnples of work done, and that we take great pleasure in assuring you that 
we are agreeably surprised at the evidence of skill manifested in the work done. 
Considering the age of the pupils and the time given to the manipulation of tools, . 
the progress is remarkable, and shows great skill and aptitude in the forming and 
shaping of articles from the various metals." 

The following extracts from a letter to the Commission from the 
director of the school, under date of October 3, 1888, briefly states the 
present situation : 

" I scarcely know what more to send [than catalogues] that will in- 
terest you. Possibly the enclosed list of the articles made by the pu- 
pils last year may serve some purpose. 

I may also state that our school takes its full share of prizes at the 
8tate fair, for scholastic work, in competition with the scholastic work 
of the best high schools of the State. I think this important, as show- 
ing that the manual work does not interfere, or retard the purely aca- 
demic work. 

In regard to the attitude of the public towards our school, and 
manual training in general: The school was opened with considerable 
doubt of its ability to do fair intellectual work, especially among edu- 
cational people. That doubt has been largely dissipated. The general 
public has welcomed our work from the first, though it has had mis- 
conceptions of the true character of our scope. Many imagined the 
school to be a refuge for the dunces or scape-graces that could make 
no progress in, or were wisely expelled from the public school. Many 
supposed it to be a school for the teaching of trades. But its true 
character has forced itself on the minds of people generally ; and the 
number of applicants for admission has steadily increased. Our first 
class numbered 78; the present junior (first year) class numbers 102, 
and I am refusing applicants almost daily, simply for want of room. 

Last year the entire school — three classes — was 202 ; this year, 225. 

There is a demand for teachers of manual training, especially in 
colleges and private schools. A letter from the Texas State Agricul- 
tural and Mechanical College is just received, asking for a teacher. 
One of my graduates taught last year in the Arkansas State College 
at Fayetteville, and this year has gone to the Miller school, Virginia. 
Another taught a private school in Racine, during July and August- 



Industrial Education Commission. 91 

During the school year several of my pupils teach manual training 
on Saturday." 

Very truly yours, 
(Signed) H. H. Belfield. 

3. Peru, 111. 
" Manual training is in its sixth year here, with no abatement of 
interest ; rather a settled content that it is a part of our public school 
system. With us it has received attention in three directions : 

1. The boys' workshop for wood work, fitted up for classes of twenty 
with all the tools necessary for such practice. The boys take this 
work daily except Friday forty- five minutes each recitation. In these 
classes are taught (a) care and use of tools, (h) nature of materials to 
be used, (c) practical designing of simple objects. 

2. For the girls, sewing. In this department only plain sewing, 
cutting and fitting is attempted. There is no work being done in this 
department now, though we shall have some for our winter classes. 

3. Wood-carving at school seats in connection with drawing 
lessons. 

This in brief constitutes our manual training work." 

Yours truly, 
(Signed) R. L. Barton, 

Superintendent City Schools. 

4. Illinois State University. 

" The State University of Illinois, had its origin in a movement for 
the higher education of the industrial classes, begun in 1851, and re- 
sulting in the congressional grant of lands for this purpose, made 
to the several States in 1862, and amounting in this State to 480,000 
acres. The university was chartered in February, 1867, and opened 
to students in March, 1868. Successive colleges and schools have 
been added as required, until four colleges, including ten distinct 
schools, have been organized." 

Applicants for admission to the mechanical engineering course 
should be at least eighteen years of age — none are admitted under 
fifteen — and must pass examination in arithmetic, geography, English 
grammar, history of the United States, algebra through quadratics, 
physiology, natural philosophy, plane and solid geometry, and botany. 

Expenses. 
The tuition is free in all the University classes. 
The matriculation fee entitles the student to membership 
in the University until he completes his studies, and must 

be paid before he enters ; amount, $10 00 

The term fee for incidental expenses is, for each student, . . 7 50 
Room rent in university dormitory, each student per term, 

2 00 to 6 00 



92 Keport of the 

Each student in the chemical and physical laboratories, and in 
the draughting and engineering classes, is required to make a de- 
posit varying from fifty cents to eight dollars, to pay for chemicals 
and apparatus used, and for any breakages or damages. 

All engineering students pursue the following studies : French or 
German for two years ; pure and applied mathematics, physics and 
drawing. The special work of the mechanical engineering students 
will be best understood from the following extracts from the annual 
catalogue : 

School of Mechanical Engineering. 
Object of the School, 

This school seeks to prepare students for the profession of mechan- 
ical engineering. It aims to fit them to invent, design, construct and 
manage machinery for any branch of manufactures. The State needs 
men who, to a thorough knowledge of the principles of machinery 
and of the various motors, add the practical skill necessary to design 
and construct the machines by which these motors are made to do 
work. 

Instruction. 

The instruction, while severely scientific, is thoroughly practical. It 
aims at a clear understanding and mastery of all mechanical princi- 
ciples and devices. Practice in the mechanical laboratory is counted 
as one of the studies of the course. 

\n principles instruction is imparted by lectures, illustrated plates, 
and by text books. Examples are given showing the application of the 
theories and principles taught. Experiments in the testing of ma- 
chines and motors are undertaken by the student. 

In J?7'<3^c^^c6 elementary forms are produced and projects are exe- 
cuted in which the student constructs machines, or parts thereof, of 
his own designing, and from his own working drawings. 

In designing the student begins with elements, and proceeds with 
progressive exercises till he is able to design and represent complete 
machines. 

Meclianical Art and Design. 
An elementary course of shop practice has been carefully arranged 
to familiarize the student with the forms of the parts of machines and 
the mode of producing them. He is made familiar with all the ordi- 
nary cutting tools for iron or wood, with the form and condition for 
most effective work, with the machines and appliances by which they 
are put in action, and the instruments by which desired dimensions of 
product are obtained. This practice is obtained in the mechanical 
laboratory and represents four different shops, viz : 

1. Patternmaking. 

2. Blacksmithing. 



Industrial Education Commission. 93 

3. Bench Work for Iron. 

4. Machine Tool Work for Iron. 

In the first the practice consists in planing, turning, chiseling, etc., 
in producing true surfaces in various forms in wood, and also in com- 
bining pieces of glue joint, etc., preliminary to correct patternmak- 
ing. Patterns are finally made, from which are cast pieces in iron, 
brass, etc., to be worked in the subsequent shops. 

In the second, the student uses the forge and performs the various 
elementary operations; such as drawings, upsetting, bending, weld- 
ing, etc. 

In the third there is first a course of free-hand bench work, the 
cold chisel and file being the only tools. After the hand and eye are 
sufiiciently trained, fitting is begun, and the square, bevel, rule, com- 
passes and other auxiliary bench tools are used. Pieces are then 
fitted together by the file, with surfaces carefully finished. 

In the fourth shop the ordinary machine tools of the machine shop 
are used. The first practice employs these machines with their cut- 
ting tools or bits, in common operations, such as turning cylinders, 
discs, grooves, and fillets ; boring, drilling, hand-turning, milling, 
planing, etc. 

Following this is a course of practice in fitting and finishing, in 
which calipers, rules, etc., are introduced, and many of the various 
fittings employed in machinery are produced. 

Lectures are given in which the most favorable forms and manipu- 
lations of cutting tools and auxiliary appliances are explained. 

Previous to the shop work, drawings of the pieces are made by the 
student, and the exact thing to be done is indicated ; thus mistakes 
are avoided and practice facilitated. 

The designing of such machine elements as pulleys, journal boxes, 
cranks, stuffing boxes, etc., cultivates a knowledge of proportion, and 
of its proper representation on paper. 

This course of elementary practice fits the student for the advanced 
shop practice in designing and construction of complete machines 
undertaken later in the course. 

Technical Studies. 

Kinematics and Principles of Mechanism, — Kelative motion of 
points in a system of connected pieces ; motion independent of force ; 
velocity ratio; investigation of motion of elementary parts of ma- 
chines, at friction and non circular wheels in rolling contact, cams and 
curves in sliding contact; gear teeth; gearing chains; escapements; 
link work. 

Prime Movers. — The theory and useful eff'ects of turbine water- 
wheels, and best form of the parts for high efficiency. Other water- 
wheels and wind- wheels. Application of the thermo dyamics in the 
study of heat engines. Relative economy of diff'erent engines. 



94 Report of the 

Mill- Work and Macliinery. — Trains of mechanism studied with 
reference to their resistance and efficiency; best forms for transmis- 
sion of power for short or great distances; forms of the parts for 
securing desired results in power and velocity; elastic and ultimate 
strength of parts. 

Machine Drawing, — Working drawings of original designs; finish- 
ing in water colors, and in line shading; details for shop use accord- 
ing to the practice of leading manufacturers. 

Projects and Practice. 

" The shop practice of the first year has already been described. 
The second year practice has for its object the production of some 
model or machine. The students, under the immediate direction of 
the teachers, carefully determine the dimensions and shapes best 
suited for the parts of some machine, produce them in neat and accu- 
rate working drawings, and make tracings for shop use. No student 
commences his advanced shop practice without working drawings. 
The designs are such as require execution in iron, brass and wood, 
for the purpose of giving variety of practice. The student is re- 
quired to make the patterns and castings, finish the parts, and put 
them together in accordance with the working drawings and the 
required standard of workmanship. This acquaints him with the 
manner in which the mechanical engineer carries his designs into 
execution, and teaches him to so shape, proportion and dispose the 
parts of a machine as to secure the greatest economy of construc- 
tion and durability in use. The practice of the third year includes 
the careful construction of mechanical movements, strictly in accord- 
ance with the theoretical determination of the form of the parts. 

'* Besides these practical exercises, students of sufficient skill may 
be employed in the commercial work which is undertaken by the shop. 
For this work they receive compensation. This work includes all 
kinds of machine building and repairing, and serves to extend and 
conform the practical experience of the student. 

'' Experirne/tta and Practical Problems. — Experiments in the test- 
ing of prime movers and other machines, are undertaken by each 
student. They take indicator diagrams from the engine of the me- 
chanical laboratory and in factories in the adjoining towns, and deter- 
mine from them the power developed with diff'erent degrees of ex- 
pansion, and the possible defects of valve movement in distribution of 
steam," 

Apparatus. 

This school is provided with plates and a cabinet of models illu- 
strating mechanical movements and elementary combinations of 
mechanism. 



Industrial Education Co^niissiON. 95 

The mechanical building and drill hall is of brick, 126 feet in 
length and 8S feet in width. It contains a boiler room, a machine 
shop, furnished for practical use with a steam engine, lathes and 
other machinery ; pattern and finishing shops ; shops for carpentry 
and cabinetwork, furnished with woodworking machinery; paint 
and draughting rooms, and rooms for models, storage, etc. An addi- 
tion for a blacksmith shop, 32x36 feet, contains forges, with anvils 
and tools,. and a cupola for melting iron. 

The Mechanical Laboratory is provided with a steam engine, 
engine and hand lathes, planer, drill presses and the requisite hand 
tools, benches, vises, anvils, etc., for pattern shop, blacksmith shop, 
molding room and bench work. Its cabinets contains several hun- 
dred models of elements of mechanism and machines. 



96 Report of the 



VII. INDIANA. 

1. Indianapolis Public Schools. 

Superintendent Jones, of Indianapolis, Indiana, under date of 
September 27, 1888, writes : 

"We have no documents of the kind to which you refer. We are 
in the midst of our first year of manual training in our high school. 
We have for many years carried out a systematic course of drawing 
and construction work throughout our primary schools, but have no 
printed documents. My annual report, in which I have discussed the 
subject somewhat, is in the hands of the printer. The public senti- 
ment here is favorable to such course as an educational force, tending 
to develop executive ability, rather than as an immediate preparation 
for any special calling." 

2. Purdue University. 

Purdue University is a State institution. It is supported by legis- 
lative appropriations and by the proceeds of the land grant Act of 
1862. It derives its name through legislative enactment from John 
Purdue, who gave to the State for the use of the institution two hun- 
dred and twenty thousand dollars. It has a permanent endowment 
fund to the amount of three hundred and forty thousand dollars, and 
other non-productive property in buildings, lands and equipment to 
the value of three hundred and thirty thousand dollars. 

It has one hundred and eighty acres of land in its campus and farm, 
fifteen buildings, well equipped laboratories, shops, museums, library 
and reading rooms. 

Its purpose is to afford the young men and women of Indiana an oppor- 
tunity to acquire -a good collegiate education in mathematics, science, 
literature and art, and at the same time to secure instruction and 
practice in such lines of work as will fit them to engage in the prac- 
tical industries of life. The instruction is botli theoretical and prac- 
tical. The usual methods of text- book stud}^, recitation and lecture 
are employed, but the student is required to put into practice as far 
as possible the instruction which he receives. He, for example, not 
only receives instruction in regard to the theory and principles of 
drawing, patternmaking and machine construction, but he is re- 
quired to make working drawings himself, to construct patterns, to 
make the castings in the foundry, to finish and set up the machine, 
and to operate it when it is completed. This combination of the theo- 
retical and the practical, characterizes the institution. 



Industrial Education Commission. 97 

Being a State institution, the instruction in Purdue University is 
free to all residents of Indiana of suitable age and acquirements. 
Small laboratory, library and incidental fees only are charged. 

The instruction embraces six special schools and a preparatory de- 
partment as follows : 

I. A School of Agriculture^ Horticulture and Veterinary Science. 
Leading to the Degree of Bachelor of Science. 
II. A School of Mechanical Engineering. 

Leading to the Degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering. 

III. A School of Civil Engineering. 

Leading to the Degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering. 

IV. A School of Science. 

Leading to the Degree of Bachelor of Science. 
By elections in the Junior and Senior years this school may be 
developed into 

{a) A School of Biology. 

(h) A School of Chemistry. 

{c) A School of Applied Electricity. 

(d) A School of Literature and History. 
in which one or the other of these subjects may occupy the 

greater part of the student's time. 

v. A School of Industrial Art. 

Leading to the Degree of Bachelor of Science. 
YI. A School of Pharmacy. 

Leading to the Degree of Graduate in Pharmacy. 
VII. A Preparatory Department. 

The courses of instruction in the first five special schools are so ar- 
ranged that they include, with few exceptions, the same instruction in 
general science, mathematics, English history, political and mental 
science, and industrial drawing. In addition to these branches com- 
mon to the five schools, the school of agriculture adds four years of 
irfstruction and practice in agriculture, horticulture and veterinary 
science; the school of mechanical engineering, two years ni instruc- 
tion and practice in practical mechanics and two years of mechanical 
engineering; the school of civil engineering, five terms of instruction 
and practice in practical mechanics and seven terms of civil engineer- 
ing ; the school of science, four years in laboratory work in the natural 
and physical sciences; and the school of industrial art, four years of 
instruction and training in industrial art. 

Students in each of these schools are now required to spend in lab- 
oratory, shop or field an average of two hours each day in such forms 
of handwork as will fit them to engage in industrial pursuits. 

Applicants for admission to the freshman class must be sixteen 
years of age. 

7 Ed. Com. 



98 Report of the 

Applicants are examined in English (including grammar, the ele- 
ments of composition, reading and spelling), descriptive geography, 
history of the United States, arithmetic and algebra through quadratic 
equations. 

Applicants who have completed their course of preparation in high 
schools, which have been commissioned by the State Board of Educa- 
tion, will be admitted to the freshman class without examination. 

Persons desiring to enter an advanced class in the university will 
be required to give satisfactory evidence that they have done work 
equivalent to that already accomplished by the class to which entrance 
is desired. 

Advanced students who can give evidence that they have done 
work equivalent to the language, literature, history and mathematics 
of our freshman and sophomore years, can take the technical work 
done in those two years in one year, and thus be enabled to complete 
any one of the general courses in three years. 

School of Mechanical Engineering. 

The instruction in this school is arranged to respond to the present 
strong and growing demand for young men who understand practical 
mechanical construction, who are skilled in the use of tools, and who 
have been given such additional and advanced training that they 
may become, not merely constructors, but also inventors and des^'gners 
of machinery. 

During the first two years, special prominence is given to shop work 
and the studies pertaining thereto, including instruction and practice 
in those underlying principles of the common trades, which, when 
taken together, form a basis for all lines of special mechanical work. 

The last two years are specially devoted to the theory and practice 
of mechanical engineering. 

The course of instruction, omitting general and literary studies, is 
as follows : 

Freshman Year. 

Technical Instruction. — Twenty- seven weeks, three hours per week. 
Under this head are comprised : 

(a). Lectures developing the character of cutting edges for wood, 
the adjustment of different tools and the methods by which they are 
kept in order; also, lectures on the shrinkage and warping of woods; 
different forms, adaptation and relative strength of joints. 

(b). Lectures on wood-VAorking machines, including rotary and 
traverse planers; circular, scroll and band saws; and lathes and 
lathe attachments. 

(c). Lectures on patternmaking, molding and casting. 

Mechanical Drawing. — Fifteen weeks, seven hours per week ; twelve 
weeks, four hours per week, and eleven weeks, ten hours per week. 



Ikdustkial Education Commission. 99 

(a). Model-drawing in outlhie. 

(b). Drawings from oopy of the details of machines. 

(c). Drawings for built-up pulley patterns, pipe bends, laggings, 
sweeps, patterns for sectional molding and for other work of like 
character that may be done in the shop. 

Shop Work. — Thirty-eight weeks, ten hours per week. 

(a). Exercises in planing, sawing, rabbeting, plowing, notching, 
splicing, mortising, tenoning, dovetailing, framing, paneling and in 
other work involving the common carpenter tools. 

(b). Exercises in circular sawing, scroll sawing and turning. 

(c). Exercises in patternmaking, including patterns and core boxes 
for pulleys, gears, columns and pipe joints; complete sets of patterns 
for one or more machines are made by every class. 

(d). Exercises in coremaking, moldmaking and casting; also in the 
management of cupola furnace and crucible furnace in melting iron 
and brass. 

Sophomore Year. 

Technical Instruction. — Twenty- three weeks, two hours per week. 

(a). Lectures on the management of steel in forging, hardening, 
tempering and annealing. 

(b). Lectures on hand-tools for metal. 

(c). Lectures on machines for machine work. 

Mechanical Drawing. — Fifteen weeks, five hours per week; twelve 
weeks, three hours per week ; and eleven weeks, four hours per week. 

(a). Draioings to scale from parts of actual machines. 

(b). Ink- shading and tinting. The representation of flat and curved 
surfaces by ink tints, and of engineering materials by colors. 

Shop Work. — Thirty-eight weeks, ten hours per week. 

(a). Iron /<9r^?'72^, including exercises in heating, bending, drawing, 
upsetting, welding, annealing, and case hardening. About forty forg- 
ings are made, representing a large variety of operations. 

(b). Steel forging^ including the making and tempering of punches, 
drills, chisels, machine cutting-tools, gravers and springs. 

(c). Exercises in vise work in iron, including surface chipping, key- 
seating, surface filing, squaring and fitting, round- filing, sawing, scrap- 
ing and polishing. 

(d). Machine work in metals, including exercises in turning, plan- 
ing, slotting, drilling, boring, fluting, etc. This practice is given in the 
construction of complete machines and appliances. 

Junior Year. 

Descriptive Geometry. — Fifteen weeks, ten hours per week. In- 
struction and practice in the methods of representing, by drawings, all 
geometrical magnitudes and the solution of problems relating to these 



100 Report of the 

magnitudes in space. This subject, including the principles of shades, 
shadows and perspective, is taught by lecture, the time allotted being 
equally divided between instruction in the class room and the practical 
solution of original problems in the drawing room. 

Principles of Mechanism, — Twelve weeks, four hours per week, and 
eleven weeks, two hours per week. Under this head are studied the 
principles underlying the action of the elementary combinations of 
which all machines are composed. The communications of motion by 
gear-wheels, belts, cams, screws and link- work, the various means of 
producing definite changes of velocity, different automatic feed motion, 
epicylic trains, parallel motions, the principles of quick return move- 
ments, and the manner of designing trains of mechanism for various 
purposes, all form part of this subject. 

Mechanical Drawing, — Twelve weeks, two hours per week, and 
eleven weeks, eight hours per week. The work in mechanical draw- 
ing is directly supplemental to the instruction in principles of mech- 
anism. 

The work includes drawings of epicycloidal and involute gear- 
wheels, drawings of pin-gearing, bevel gearing, lobed wheels, cams, 
endless screws, and other elementary combinations. These drawings 
are not in any sense copies, being made by each student to correspond 
with data furnished him by the instructor. During the spring term 
each student makes complete working drawings of some existing ma- 
chine, obtaining for himself all necessary data by direct measurement 
from the machine. 

Metallurgy. — Eleven weeks, three hours per week. The various 
fuels and refractory materials are first taken up and their special fit- 
ness for different metallurgical operations is pointed out. The char- 
acteristics, composition and location of the principal iron ores are next 
examined, after which all the various operations in the manufacture 
and refining of iron and steel are explained in detail, according to the 
most modern practice. See also chemistry, page 42. 

jQ'g^^^.—Twenty-seven weeks, three hours per week. Nature and 
effects of heat, temperature, measurement of heat, expansion, lique- 
faction, evaporation, latent heat, specific heat, conduction, convection, 
relation between heat and mechanical energy, principles of thermo- 
dynamics. The instruction will be given partly in the class-room and 
partly by experimental work in the physical laboratory. 

Senior Year. 

Analytical Mechanics. — Nineteen weeks, five hours per week. The 
work in this subject consists of mathematical investigations concern- 
ing the action of forces on solids, liquids and gases 

Steam Engine. — Fifteen weeks, four hours per week. The work 
begins with the study of the general theory of the steam engine and 
of its efficiency as a prime mover, including discussions of the laws 



Industrial Education Commission. 101 

of thermb-dynamics, the expansion of steam, jacketing, cushioning, 
action of fly-wheels, effect of clearance, effect of condensation in cylin- 
der and other similar subjects. The relative advantages of simple 
and compound, condensing and non-condensing engines, the princi- 
pal types of modern engines, the various valve and cut-off motions, 
the method of determining the size of an engine to do any required 
work, and of calculating the sizes of all its parts are all explained. 
Special attention is given to the steam engine indicator, and the stu- 
dent becomes thoroughly familiar with its use and the manner of in- 
terpreting its indications. Each student participates in a number of 
complete engine tests, determining the efficiency of a giv^en engine 
under specified conditions. 

Boilers. — Six weeks, five hours per week. The various modern 
forms of steam boilers are carefully studied, noting their advantages 
and disadvantages and the methods employed in their construction. 
The number and size of tubes and flues, the thickness of plates, strength 
of different styles of riveting, kinds of bracing, amount of grate and 
heating surface, different kinds of steam and water gauges, safety 
valves and injectors ; the causes of and methods of preventing foam- 
ing, incrustation and corrosion, the manner of setting boilers and of 
operating them with safety and economy are all studied in detail. 
Each student participates in at least one complete boiler test, deter- 
mining the evaporative power and economy of combustion of fuel of 
one or more boilers under given conditions, and must also design and 
draw a boiler of a style and size chosen by the instructor. 

Strength of Materials — Six weeks, five hours per week. This sub- 
ject includes the study of the strength, elasticity, and other physical 
properties of the various materials of construction, such a stone, 
wood, cast and wrought iron, steel, copper, brass, etc. Students ac- 
quire this information partly from text-books, but principally from 
actual experiments made by themselves with the powerful testing 
machine belonging to the testing laboratory. The proper forms for 
greatest strength under given conditions, as well as the laws govern- 
ing deflection and elasticity, are deduced by theoretical investigation 
and verified by practical experiment. 

Machine Design. — Eight weeks, five hours per week. During this 
time exercises are given in the design of simple machines to do given 
work under specified conditions. The necessary motions are carefully 
laid out, and the sizes and proportions of the various parts are deter- 
mined by calculation. Fart of the time is devoted to the manner of 
arranging shops, the means of transmitting power over both short 
and long distances, and to the solution of some of the miscellaneous 
problems constantly arising before the mechanical engineer. 

Mechanical Drawing and Experimental Work in Engineering. — 
Thirty-five weeks, ten hours per week. Throughout the senior year 
students devote two hours daily to practical work in the drawing 



102 Report of the 

room and in the testing laboratory. They make drawings of peculiar 
and complicated machinery ; they also prepare the necessary draw- 
ings in connection with the study of machine design; they take part 
in all the experimental work done by the testing laboratory, includ- 
ing the determination of the efficiency of boilers, steam engines and 
pumps, the relative value of coals, the strength of the materials of 
construction, and other subjects of importance to the mechanical en- 
gineer. 

Applied Electricity. — Thirty-five weeks, six hours per week. The 
work in this subject includes systematic laboratory instruction in the 
setting up and care of the various forms of fluid, thermo and second- 
ary batteries, in the use of galvanometers, resistance coils, condensers, 
etc. ; in the measurement of resistance of conductors and batteries, 
insulation of cables, electro-motive force, etc. ; in the construction 
and testing of electro -magnets, and in the applications of electricity 
to industrial purposes. 

Special attention is given to the magnitude of electrical units and 
their relation to the mechanical units. Instruments of the latest and 
best forms are provided for this work. 

During the year the junior and senior students make visits of in- 
spection, in charge of an instructor, to the prominent manufacturing 
establishments of Chicago, Indianapolis, and other cities. Such trips 
are of very great value to the students, affording them an opportunity 
of seeing in actual practice those processes of manufacture whose the- 
ory they have already studied in the class room. 

Graduating Theses. — As a condition of graduation, students in the 
school of mechanical engineering are required to present a thesis on 
some approved subject. Such theses must be original compositions 
of suitable length on some subject of interest to the mechanical engi- 
neer. The subjects are so selected as to necessitate original work, 
either of investigation or of experiment, on the part of the student. 
The originals of these are preserved in the university library. 

The following are subjects of those presented by graduating 
classes : 

1. " Bessemer Steel : Its History and Practical Manufacture." 

2. " Steam Engine indicators : the Various Forms in Use and their 
Applications." 

3. '' Methods of Testing SteaJi Boilers, including the Result of an 
Experimental Determination of the Efficiency of a Pair of Steam 
Boilers." 

4. "The Stones and Quarries of Indiana, including Experimental 
Determination of their Physical Properties." 

5. "Windmills: Their History and Present Forms, including Ex- 
periments in Determining their Efficiency." 

6. " Thermo Chemical Batteries." 

7. " Electro Plating with Aluminum." 



Industrial Education Commission. 103 

8. "Determination of Efficiency of Dynamos and Motors." 

9. •' Cable Kailways." 

Mechanical Laboratory. 

The Mechanical Laboratory is wholly occupied by the School of Me- 
chanical Engineering. 

The main portion of the building is occupied by two recitation rooms, 
a drawing room, a testing laboratory and an office. The drawing 
rooms are furnished with tables, drawing boards and T square for each 
student. There is also provided, for general use, a supply of the more 
expensive drawing instruments, such as proportional dividers, protrac- 
tors, beam compasses, etc., and a large number of rubber curves. 

In the wings of the building are a wood-working room, a foundry, 
a forge room and a machine room; and connected with these, an en- 
gine room, a tool room and a coat room. The wood-working room 
contains twenty benches, with full sets of bench tools for wood, eleven 
lathes for turning, a grindstone, a circular saw and a scroll saw. The 
foundry is equipped with a cupola furnace for iron, a crucible furnace 
for brass, a core oven, and a full supply of sand, flasks and molders' 
tools. The forge room contains fourteen forges, to which air blast is 
supplied by power, fourteen anvils and fourteen sets of the usual 
smithing tools. The machine room contains two screw-cutting machine 
lathes of sixteen inch swing, four of fourteen inch swing, and one of 
ten inch swing ; also a machine planer, a sharper, a universal milling 
machine, a grindstone, two vertical drilling machines, a speed lathe, 
and an emery grinder. These machines are provided with all the 
necessary small tools, cutters, etc., necessary to their complete and 
economic action. In the machine room are benches, fitted with vises 
for use in connection with hand-work in metal. 

The motive power for the shops is supplied with an automatic cut off 
engine of thirty-five horse power. 

Testing Laboratory. 

The work done by the laboratory includes the determination of the 
strength and other physical properties of the materials of construction, 
the testing of steam boilers by hydraulic pressure, examination and 
correction of steam gauges, determination of the evaporative power 
and economy of combustion of fuel of steam boilers, and of the efficiency 
and amount of fuel consumed per horse power of steam engines. The 
laboratory also determines the relative value of coals for steaming 
purposes, conducts competitive tests of rival engines, boilers or other 
machinery, and is prepared to make experimental determinations in 
other matters of interest to the engineering profession. 

Students perform work in the testing laboratory as part of the 
regular course in strength of materials, boilers and steam engines, and 
assist in all commercial and experimental work done by the laboratory- 



104 Report of the 

Among the recent additions to the experimental machinery is a 10 
H. P. improved balance dynamometer. With this instrument reliable 
experimental work may be done in all tests of engine friction, and of 
the power transmitted by machinery. 

The laboratory is provided with a powerful machine for testing the 
strength and elasticity of materials. The machine can exert any strain 
up to 50,000 pounds, and can subject the specimen to tension, com- 
pression or transverse strain. In addition, the laboratory possesses a 
steam gauge tester, steam engine indicator, planimeter, micrometer 
and other necessary appliances, and has the use of the thoroughly 
equipped shops of the university. 

Speaking of the work in the School of Mechanics and Engineering, 
Prof. Goss says : 

" Our shop work is intended chiefly as a preparation for advanced 

work in engineering and has been conducted on the same general plan, 

which at present governs it, ever since it was started, ten years ago. 

Its steady growth has been uninterrupted. We now have 125 students 

working every day. 

Note. 

The accompanying plates represent work done by students in the university. The 
sideboard is made of wild cherry, and the smaller articles of walnut, poplar or pine. 
The carving was done as a daily class exercise in the regular course of instruction, 
and chiefly by young ladies. 



Industrial Education Commission. 



105 




Specimens of wood carving made bj^ students (mostly by lady students), 
in Purdue Universit3\ 



106 



Report of the 




Horizontal En<2:ine — made f)y students in Purdue University. 



IisDUSTKiAL Education Commission. 107 

3. Rose Polytechnic Institutute. 

The institute was founded in 1874, by the late Chauncey Rose, of 
Terre Haute, and was opened March 7, 1883. 

It is devoted to the higher education of young men in engineering, 
including in this term all those productive and constructive arts by 
which the forces of nature are made subservient to the needs of man, 
and the principles which underlie those arts. 

Its course of instruction includes, therefore, the principles and the 
practice of engineering with special reference to the following branches 
of the subject : Mechanical engineering, civil engineering, chemistry, 
physics, electricity and drawing. 

" Those who are actively engaged in the practice of engineering are 
generally agreed that every young man who is in training for an 
engineer should acquire familiarity with the practical side of his pro- 
fession — especially that mechanical engineers should understand the 
use of tools and machinery. The acquirement of this manual dexterity 
may precede, accompany or follow the training in engineering princi- 
ples. In this school it accompanies it. 

If the student's study of principles is supplemented by weekly 
practice in a shop where these principles are seen applied, his entrance 
upon the life of an engineer will be an expansion of his course of 
study, rather than an abrupt transition to a new mode of life. 

The important fact which underlies any sound scheme for school 
shops is that machinery is to have a constanly increasing share in the 
conversion of matter into useful form. The educated mechanic must 
understand the practical limits of mechanical production and all the 
possible ways in which those limits can be extended. He must know 
by practice how to design, construct and assemble the parts of a 
machine, as well as how to finish its product by skilful handicraft, 
and he should also know how to make his tools. The power of an 
engineer to decide, upon general grounds, the best form and material 
for a machine, and to calculate its parts, is vastly increased by blend- 
ing with it the skill of the craftsman in manipulating the material. 

The work of the students in mechanical engineering is so distributed 
that they spend sixteen hours per week in the shop during the first 
year and ten hours a week during the rest of the course. During this 
time they receive instruction from skilled workmen in the various de- 
partments, by whom their practice is constantly supervised. 

Each student receives instruction tri- weekly in drawing ; by this 
discipline such perception of form and proportion is secured by the 
students that, when they undertake shop work, they make more rapid 
and satisfactory progress than those who have not had the advantage 
of this training. And each student, as soon and as far as possible, is 
required to make working-drawings of every article that he pro- 
duces, for the ability to make and to read drawings is an important 
characteristic of an engineer. 



108 Report of the 

As the workshop is educational in its character, and is managed 
solely for the advantage of the students, each one can advance as fast 
as possible, unchecked by the dificulties of his neighbors or the finan- 
cial necessities of the institution. 

To these considerations in favor of a school shop must be added an- 
other which outweighs them all; that students come to their shop 
work with their perceptive facilties, the reason, the judgment and the 
taste, all under constant and careful training in other diepartments of 
the school, and also that their interest in the study of theoretical 
principles is greatly enhanced by the opportunity offered for their 
immediate application to various problems arising out of their shop 
work. 

In accordance with these general ideas the Rose Polytechnic Insti- 
tution offers to young men a good education based on mathematics, 
living languages, physical sciences and drawing, together with a prac- 
tical training in and a familiarity with some form of applied science." 

Admission. 

Candidates for admission to the freshman class must be at least 
sixteen years old, present certificates of good standing and pass exam- 
nation in the following branches, viz : English grammar, history of 
the United States, geography, arithmetic and algebra to quadratic 
equations, including radical quantities. 

Advanced standing. — Candidates lor admission to advanced stand- 
ing must show that they are qualified to enter the class which they 
desire to join, either by furnishing satisfactory certificates of work 
done at other institutions, or by examination. 

Graduates of the manual training schools, which are now to be 
found in nearly all large cities, will generally be able to enter at the 
beginning of the sophomore year. 

Graduates of institutions of recognized standing are admitted as 
post-graduate students and may select studies and exercises as they 
desire. 

The diplomas of high schools or academies of good character may 
be received in lieu of an examination for an admission to the fresh- 
man class. When admission is sought in this way, the diploma is 
to be accompanied by a copy of the course of study of the school, 
certified to by the principal. 

The number of students admitted to the freshman class is limited 
to fifty. It is not intended to admit a greater number than will be 
compatible with the best possible use of the facilities of the institute. 
Should the number of applicants for admission exceed fifty, those 
admitted are selected in the order of their application or notification 
of intention, all other thino;s being equal. 



Industrial Education Commission. 109 

Fees. 

No charge for tuition is made to hona iide residents of Vigo county, 
Indiana. All others pay seventy-five dollars each per year. Every 
student, of whatever place of residence, pays an annual fee of twenty- 
five dollars for use of chemicals, breakage and contingencies. 

The entire expense for tuition, board and materials need not exceed 
say three hundred dollars per year. Economical arrangements can 
be made by which this amount is considerably reduced. 

Course of Study. 

The course of study occupies four years of three terms each. There 
are four classes, freshman, sophomore, junior and senior. 

The classes are instructed by recitations lectures and laboratory and 
shop practice, which together constitute a symmetrical course of study. 

Many subjects, such as mathematics, language, physics, theoretical 
mechanics, etc., are common to the courses in mechanical and civil 
engineering. In such subjects the recitations and lectures are at- 
tended by students in both courses; their exercises during " practice" 
hours, however, are widely diff'erent. 

Courses of lectures are given by the president, professors and others 
in geology, astronomy and other topics not included in the regular 
course of study. Instruction in physics and chemistry is given largely 
by means of laboratory practice. Students are in all cases required 
to take notes and to sustain examination on the lectures. 

Each class holds a Journal Review meeting once a month, for which 
members of the class prepare brief summaries of the contents of the 
current numbers of the leading scientific and technical journals of 
the world. The meeting is in charge of some member of the faculty 
who directs the discussions. 

Practice and laboratory work is offered in — 

1. Mechanical engineering. 

2. Civil engineering. 

3. Chemistry. 

4. Physics, including the application of electricity. 

5. Drawing. 

Members of the freshman class practice alternately in the wood 
shop and the machine shop. At the beginning of the third term of 
the freshman year the election of courses is made, after which those 
electing civil engineering or chemistry devote their practice hours to 
these subjects. 

In practice and laboratory work the class system is not adopted. 
Each student, working independently of others, advances as rapidly 
as possible. A certain standard of excellence, however, must be 
reached by all. 

At the close of the year each member of the senior class presents 



110 



Report of the 



to the faculty a paper, in which he records the independent investi- 
gation of some subject congenial to his tastes, and included in the 
scope of his course. These theses, with all the drawings which ac- 
company or illustrate them, are preserved in the library of the insti- 
tute. 

Courses. — Provision is made for three separate courses, the election 
being made at the beginning of the third term of the Freshman year. 
They are : 

1. Mechanical engineering. 

2. Civil engineering. 

3. Chemistry. 

A special course in electricity and its applications is arranged in 
connection with the course in mechanical engineering. It is believed 
that those who wish to fit themselves for the intelligent manufacture 
of electrical apparatus and machinery and for designing the same, or 
for the installation and management of electric light and power sta- 
tions, for expert work in connection with telegraph and telephone 
service, etc., will especially need the greater part of the training 
which the course in mechanical engineering affords. The course in 
electricity is therefore built upon this ; the election is made at the 
beginning of the sophomore year and a part of the practice time is 
devoted to electricity from that time until the end of the course, in 
addition to the physics and laboratory practice of the junior and 
senior years, during which a large share of the time of the students 
is devoted to the subject. 

The outline of the course of study, giving the distribution of time 
as shown below, applies to all of the courses on the assumption, 
already noted, that students in civil engineering and in chemistry 
devote the hours put down to " practice " to these subjects, either in 
field-work, laboratory, lecture or recitation, to which, also, they give 
the hours in the senior year set down for machine design and elec- 
tricity. Special students in electricity devote two of the practice 
hours to that subject from the beginning of the Sophomore year. 

The course in mechanical engineering, in detail, is as follows : 



First Tebm. 



Second Term. 



Third Term. 



Algebra ; Geometry ; 
Free-hand drawing ; 
Elementary Mechanics ; 
Elementary Physics ; 
Languages ; 
Practice in Machine shop 

— Section A ; 
Practice in Woodshop — 

Section B. 



Algebra ; Geometry ; 
Mechanical Drawing ; 
Elementary Mechanics ; 
Elementary Chemistry ; 
Language ; 
Practice in Maciiineshop, 

— Section B ; 
Practice in Woodshop — 

Section A. 



Algebra ; Geometry ; 

Trigonometry ; 

Free-hand drawing; 

Elementary Mechanics; 

Elementary Chemistry; 

Language ; 

Foundry and Black- 
smith'^shop and Prac- 
tice in Woodshop one- 
half term each, Sec- 
tions A and B. 



Industrial Education Commission. 



Ill 





First Year. 


Second Year. 


Third Year. 


1 

o 

1 


Spheiical Trigonometry; 

Analytic Geometry ; 

Descriptive Geometry ; 

Free-hand and Mechani- 
cal Drawing; 

Chemistry and Chemical 
Laboratory ; 

German ; 

Practice in Machine Shop, 
Toolmaking, Foundry 
work, care of Boilers 
and Engines. 


Analytic Geometry ; 

Descriptive Geometry ; 

Free-hand and Mechani- 
cal Drawing ; 

(Ihemistry and Chemical 
Laboratory ; 

Mineralogy ; 

German ; 

Practice in Machine Shop, 
Toolmaking, Foundry 
Work, care of Boilers 
and Engines. 


Analytic Geometry ; 

Introduction to Differ- 
ential and Integral 
Calculus ; 

Introduction to the 
Theory of Determin- 
ants ; 

Free-hand and Mechan- 
ical Drawing ; 

Chemistry and Chemi- 
cal Laboratory ; 

Mineralogy ; 

Lectures on Astronomy; 

German ; 

Practice in Machine 
shop, Tool-m a k i n g , 
Foundry work, care of 
Boilers and Engines. 


1 

o 


Differential Calculus ; 

Mechanical Drawing ; 

Analytical Mechanics ; 

German Translations ; 

Practice in Machine Shop, 
making Standard Tools, 
Forging, Tempering, 
etc. 


Differential Calculus; 

Integral Calculus ; 

Mechanical Drawing; 

Physics ; 

Lectures on the method 
of Least Squares ; 

Scientific German, Peri- 
odicals, etc.; 

Practice in Machine shop, 
making Standard 
Tools, Forging, Tem- 
pering, etc. 


Integral Calculus ; 

Mechanical Drawing ; 

Physics ; 

Lectures on the method 
of Least Squares ; 

French ; 

Practice in Machine 
shop, making Stand- 
ard Tools, Forging, 
Tempering, etc. 


o 

1 


Applied Mechanics ; 

Thermo-dynamics ; 

Chemical Technology ; 

French — reading and 
translation ; 

Physical Laboratory ; 

Machine Design ; 

Engineering Laboratory; 

Practice in Woodshop — 
construction of Pat- 
terns for foundry use 
from working draw- 
ings of machines de- 
signed by members of 
the class. 


Applied Mechanics ; 

Thermo-dynamics ; 

Chemical Technology ; 

Study of English Class- 
ics ; 

Physical Laboratory ; 

Machine Design ; 

Engmeering Laboratory ; 

Practices in Woodshop — 
construction of Pat- 
terns for foundry use 
from working draw- 
ings of machines de- 
signed by members of 
the class 

Thesis Avork. 


Applied Mechanics ; 

Thermo-dynamics ; 

Chemical *^ Technology ; 

Lectures on Geology; 

English Classics, Con- 
stitution of the United 
States ; 

Physical Laboratory ; 

Machine Design ; 

Engineering Labora- 
tory; 

Practice in Woodshop — 
construction of Pat- 
terns for foundry use 
from working draw- 
ings of machines de- 
signed by members of 
the class. 

Thesis work. 



This subject, forming as it does, the most important element in the 
course in mechanical engineering, is considered both as to principles 
and practice. Instruction is given by means of recitations, lectures, 
laboratory and shop practice. It is thus attempted to combine in the 
best proportions both theory and practice, and experience has proved 
that each acts as a stimulus to the student in his pursuit of the other. 

The study of the principles of mechanics begins with the first term 



112 



Report of the 



of the freshman year and continues throughout that year. A text 
book is used and the work consists mainly of a study of the funda- 
mental principles of matter and energy, with applications to real prob- 
lems which may present themselves in the work-shop practice. 

It is again taken up in the junior year and five lessons a week in 
analytical mechanics are given during the first term ; the instructions 
being by text-book, recitations and lectures. 

Throughout the senior year four lessons a week are given, the text- 
book used being Rankine's Applied Mechanics. In this year, also, 
instruction is given in machine design, in steam engineering, and a 
large part of the time of the student is given to experimental work in 
the laborator3\ A more detailed exhibit of this instruction is given 
in the schedule below. 

The laboratory practice of the senior year includes the use of test- 
ing machines in the determination of the strength of materials, of 
various forms of dynamometers, the steam engine indicator, tests of 
boilers, engines, pumping stations, electric light installations, etc., to- 
gether with numerous experimental studies of the principles of me- 
chanics. 

Course in Mechanics. 



FiBST Term. 



Second Term. 



Third Term. 



Elementary mechanics ; 
Laws of niotion. Equi- 
librium of forces, fric- 
tion, law of work ap- 
plied to simple ma- 
chines ; two lessons a 
week. 

Practice in machine shop; 
filing, turning, screw 
threads, balls, planing, 
boring, finishing scrap- 
ing to trne surface, pol- 
ishing, etc. ; Lectures 
on the care and use of 
tools and on the con- 
struction of machines ; 
eight hours a week. 

Practice in woodshop ; 
use of hand tools, chis- 
els, saws, planes, bits, 
etc.; laying out frames 
fi'om working draw- 
ings ; use of the turning 
lathe, circular saws,jig- 
saw, planing and boring 
machines, with lectures 
on tools, etc.; eight 
hours a week. 



Elementary Mechanics ; 
transmission of power, 
dynamometers, kinetic 
and potential energy, 
moment of inertia, ef- 
fects of stress on simple 
structures ; two lessons 
a week. 

Practice in machine shop 
and woodshop of first 
term continued. 



Periodic motion, har- 
monic motion, springs 
pendulum, etc. ; two 
lessons a week. 

Practice in machine 
shop continued ; forg- 
ing, foundry work, 
and care of boilers ; 
eight hours a week. 

Practice in woodshop 
continued ; construc- 
tion of patterns of a 
simple character; 
eight hours a week. 



Industrial Education Commission. 

Course in Mechanics — Continued. 



113 



First Year. 



Second Year. 



Third Year. 



Practice in machine shop; 
construction of useful 
machines from work- 
ing draMdngs, such as 
foot lathes, drill press- 
es, power lathes, pul- 
leys, hangers,etc.; forg- 
ing tools for use in ma- 
chine shop, care of boil- 
ers and engines, prac- 
tice in brass foundry 
and molding room ; 
ten hours a week. 



Analytical uiec h a n i cs, 
equations of motion, at- 
tracti on, potential 
hydro-dynamics ; five 
lessons a week. 

Practice in machine shop; 
construction of large 
machine lathes, power 
presses, steam engines, 
etc.; making standard 
tools such as reamers, 
drills, gauges, etc., in- 
cl udin g the forging and 
tempering of the same; 
ten hours a week. 



Rankine's Applied Me- 
chani<;s; forces in 
straight line, parallel 
and inclined fore e s, 
stress, ellipse of stress, 
four lessons a week. 

Machine design ; link- 
work, gears, cams and 
simple movements, de- 
sign of simple machine; 
six hours a week. 

Laborat o r y work ; s i x 
hours a week. 

Practice in wood shop; 
construction of patterns 
for foundry use from 
working drawings, of 
machines designed by 
members of the class; 
eight hours a week. 



Practice in machine shop 
of first term continued; 
ten hours a week. 



Practice in machine shop 
of first term continued; 
ten hours a week. 



Applied m echanics con- 
tinued; frames, 
strength of materials, 
practical apj)lication to 
joints, pipes, boilers, 
beams, etc. ; four les- 
sons a week. 

Machine design con- 
tinued ; study of cost 
of machine construc- 
tion, design of auto- 
matic machinery ; six 
hours a week. 

Laboratory work ; six 
hours a week. 

Practice in woodshop ; 
construction of patterns 
for foundry use from 
working drawings of 
machines designed by 
members of the class ; 
eight hours a week. 



Practice in maciiine shop 
of first term continued ; 
ten hours a week. 



Practice in machine shop 
of first term continued ; 
ten hours a week. 



Applied mechanics con- 
tinued ; dynamics of 
rigid bodies with ap- 
plications to mechan- 
ism. 

Machin e design con- 
tinued ; finishing the 
detailed drawing with 
blue-prints of a ma- 
chine the design of 
which has been wholly 
the work of the stu- 
dents ; six hours a 
week. 

Laboratory work ; six 
hours a week. 

Practice in woodshop ; 
construction of Pat- 
terns for foundry use 
from working draw- 
ings of machines de- 
signed by members of 
the class ; eight hours 
a week. 



Engineering Laboratory. — For the investigiation and solution of en- 
gineering problems a collection of the best apparatus and appliances 
is in process of formation. The following are now at hand ; the list 
will be increased during the next year. 

The Forty-horse Power Brown Engine, which is equipped with variable cut-oft', 
independent slide-valves and complete arrangements for taking indicator cards 
under widely varying conditions. 

8 Ed. Com. 



114 Keport of the 

Two Steam Engine Indicators. 

An Absorption Dynamometer, which is arranged so as to be capable of instant ap- 
plication to the pulley on the main shaft of the engine, capable of absorbing thirty- 
horse power. 

A Bracket Cradle Dynamometer, especially designed for the study of dynamos, 
electric motors, etc. 

A Transtnission Dynamometer , capable of transmitting ten-horse power, arranged 
so as to be easily used with machine tools, dynamo-electric machines or other power 
consumers. 

A Testing Machine of 100,000 pounds capacity, by means of which tensile strength, 
elasticity, resistance to compression, deflection under traverse stress, etc., etc., can 
be ascertained for all materials used in engineering processes. 

A smaller Testing Mac/mie, for the testing of cements, etc , where less force is re- 
quired. 

An Accurate Linear Dividing Engine. 

A Comparator, for comparison of standards of length. 

Standard Bars, representing the foot and the meter. 

A Strong and Senitive Balance, with standard heavy weiglits. 

Thermometers, which have been carefally calibrated and whose errors have been 
ascertained by comparison with standards. 

Speed Counters ayid Speed Indicators. 

An Electric Chronograph, for studying variation of speed in a single revolution. 

Micrometer and Standard Gauges. 

To which may be added many instruments of pre vision in the physical laboratory, 
w^hicli are available whenever required for the study of engineering problems. 

The engineering laboratory is intended to serve the purpose of both 
the civil and mechanical engineering departments. 

Practice. 
" The workshops and auxiliary rooms are a complete manufacturing 
establishment where various sorts ot work in iron and wood are seen 
at every stage of progress in the hands of the students. The scheme 
of practice in operation comprehends more than the cultivation of 
mere skill in handicraft ; it includes the development of constructive 
power. In the earlier stages of his work the student acquires facility 
in the use of tools and machinery in the making of some of the sim- 
pler elements of a machine, or the parts of a useful product. At a 
later period these parts are assembled and the machine is completed, 
being subjected to severe tests as to the harmony and adaptation of 
its various parts. In this process the standard of excellence is never 
lower than that of the best manufacturing establishments. The com- 
mercial value of these products is kept out of sight in planning the 
practice of the student, whatever is best adapted to the successful 
development of skill being utilized. But constructive power is of a 
higher order than that of skill in handicraft and is of relatively greater 
value to the mechanical engineer. For this reason it is believed to 
be important to cultivate this power by shaping the practice work of 
each student so that it shall lead, before the course is finished, to the 
completion of a variety of mechanical products, which shall have of 
themselves a real commercial value " 

The practice of the freshmen, sixteen hours per week, is one half 
given to the workshop and the other half to the machine shop, forging 



Industrial Educatio.^ Commission. 115 

and foundry work. It is accompanied by weekly lectures on the care 
and use of tools and on the construction and management of machines. 

The practice of the juniors and sophomores, ten hours a week, is in 
the tool-room, blacksmith shop, engine room and machine shop.* 

That of the seniors, eight hours per week, is in the wood shop, in the 
construction of patterns for foundry use from working drawings of 
machines. The drawings are of machines designed by members of the 
class from original data, worked out during their study of machine 
design. 

The Wood Shop. — Students in this room learn to lay out work with 
knife and pencil ; the use of planes, saws, chisels and other wood work- 
ing hand tools; wood-turning, machine sawing, planing and boring. 
the use of shaping and moulding machines and the auxiliar}^ manipu; 
lations of all the machinery used; making, as they acquire sufficient 
knowledge, a large variety of cabinet work and all the foundry pat- 
terns required by the machine shop, the latter being made wholly 
from working drawings. 

The Tool Room. — All hand tools being the property of the institute,, 
are classified and stored in this room; and every person who uses one 
is made responsible, by a system of checks, for its safe return. 

The Forge Uooin. — Students in this room acquire apractical knowl- 
edge of forging, drawing and tempering of steel sufficiently extensive, 
to form and temper all the tools which they are likely to use. 

The Engine and Boiler Rooms. — All students in these rooms learn 
the management of the engine and boilers under test conditions, and 
will have an opportunity (o experiment with different kinds of fuel; 
they take indicator cards from the engine under different loads and 
po3itions of the valves, and from these cards they are instructed in 
regard to the best positions of the valves for the performance of any 
specific work. 

The Machine Shop. — The freshman class begin here with the rudi- 
ments of iron work, such as chipping, filing, scraping to a true surface, 
turning, boring, drilling, tapping, reaming, etc., and as soon as they 
have attained sufficient dexterity are put at work upon the construc- 
tion of an 8" swing, 3' bed lathe, or some machine requiring a similar 
class of work. 

The sophomore class haveunder course of construction a number of 
speed lathes and drill press, and a 10" turret lathe. Students of the 
sophomore and junior classes are required to spend a part of their 
practice time each term in the boiler room, tool room and foundrv. 

The junior class make the taps, reamers, miling cutters, etc.. used 
in the shop, and are also constructing a 16"x6' bed turret lathe. All 
students are required to work to standard gauges and from working 
drawings. During practice hours all students are under the immediate 
supervision of skilled workmen. 



'*In the equipment of these rooms more than !i54O,OO0 has been expended. 



116 Keport oe the 

Each member of the senior class in the department of mechanical 
engineering designs one or more machines during the year, and fur- 
nishes complete working drawings of the same. These drawings are 
then used by the freshmen from which to make their patterns, and by 
the other classes in making the machines. 

An excursion is made each year by the members of the senior class 
to one of the large manufacturing cities of the country. The class is 
accompanied by one of the members of the faculty and a special study 
is made of the most recent machinery and methods. 

Apparatus. — The polytechnic shops are furnished with the best 
modern tools and machinery for working wood and iron. The equip- 
ment of the wood shops consists of thirty-six benches, twenty-five 
"kits" of carpenters- tools, seven wood-turning lathes, three circular 
saws, two jig saws, one band saw, one double spindle molding 
machine, one panel planer, one Gray & Woods' planer, one automatic 
knife grinder, one horizontal boring machine. 

The equipment of the machine shop consists of the following tools : 

Sellers planer 23"x25"x8', Pond lathe, screw-cutting, 26"x20', same 
22"xl0', Powell lathe 19"xlO', Washburn lathe 16"x8", FJather lathe 
16"x8', Lodge & Barker lathe 18"xlO', Pratt & Whitney lathe 21"xl8', 
Fitchburg lathe 15"x6f, Putnam lathe 15"x6', Pratt & Whitney 
lathe 16"x8', Ames lathe 16"x7' and one 16" swing, 6' bed turret 
lathe made in the shop, seven chucks, universal and independent, 
one polishing lathe, three speed lathes, one Brainard milling machine 
with spiral and gear-cutting attachment, Hendcy 24" shaping machine, 
Bett's 40" radial drill. Pond 32" upright drill, emery wheels, buff 
wheels, grindstones, drills, reamers, standard gauges, chucking ream- 
ers, squares, surface plates, and a full equipment of smaller tools. 

The Forge Boom. — Is equipped with two substantially built forges 
each furnished with power blast. There are also two complete sets of 
swages, and other tools for doing all kinds of blacksmithing. 
I The Brass Foundry. — A brass foundry has recently been completed 
and is now in running order. Students in the foundry practice in 
brass moulding from a large variety of patterns and under the imme- 
diate supervision of a skilled molder. 

The engine and boiler rooms contain a 40-horse power Brown 
engine and five boilers ; the engine serves the double purpose of a 
motor and a piece of apparatus; it has a variable cut-ofi" with four 
independent slide-valves, and represents the best American work- 
manship. There is also a Crosby test gauge; a Murdock No. 20 ex- 
haust injector, and a Hancock No. 12^ inspirator, with a sectional 
model of the same. 

The boilers are connected so as to be used in every possible combi- 
nation ; arrangements have been made to weigh the coal and ash, and 
to measure the water used, and these rooms become available for 
studying problems in steam engineering by actual experiment. 



Industrial Education Commission. 



117 



Drawing. 

The freshman class spend the first and third terms in model draw- 
ing and shading with lead pencil and crayon ; the second term in geo- 
metrical drawing, including the making of simple working drawings. 
The sophomore class spend two hours a week in sepia and pen draw- 
ings, and four hours a week in the use of drawing instruments and in 
the theory and practice of orthographic, isometric and perspective 
projections and shades and shadows. 

The junior class spend six hours a week in the construction of gear 
tooth and cam outlines and use of the odontograph, the principles of 
stereotomy, special problems in machine movements and in making 
finished and working drawings from specific data. 

All drawing is done under the eye of the instructor. 

The course as arranged by years and terms, is shown below. 

Apparatus. — The free-hand drawing room is elegantly finished, and 
provided with examples of the most approved methods of drawing. 
It contains perspective models, made at the Royal Sculpture Gallery, 
at Dresden ; a collection of casts of antique forms made by Malpieri, 
of Rome ; and a full set of the models designed by Walter Smith, of 
Boston. 

The mechanical- drawing room is equally commodious, and easily 
supplied from the shop with the examples of machine construction. 
In this room the students see specimens of the drawing and machine- 
work done at other polytechnic schools, especially the large collection 
presented to this institution by the Imperial Institute of Technology, 
at St. Petersburg. 

The following schedule shows the course in drawing, in detail : 
Course in Drawing. 





First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


§ 


Free-hand — Six hours 


Mechanical— Six hours 


Free-hand — Six hours 




per week. 


per week. 


per week. 


Outline Drawing from 


Geometrical Drawings 


Shading from models 


^ 


Models. 


and simple Working- 


with pencil and cray- 


^ 




Drawings. 


on, Machine Sketch- 
ing. 




Free-hand — Two hours 


Free-hand — Two hours 


Free-hand — Two hours 




per week. 


per week. 


per week. 


^ 


Sepia D r a M^ i n g fro m 


Pen and Ink Drawing 


Pen and Ink Drawings 


o 


Models. 


from Models. 


for Photo-Fngravings. 


g 


Mechanical— Four hours 


iNIechanical- Four hours 


Mechanical — Four hours 




per week. 


per w^eek. 


per week. 


^^ 


Line and Brush Shad- 


Shades and Shadows, 


Perspective working 


^ 


ing, Section coloring. 


Isometric Projections. 


Drawings, Tracing and 
Blue Printing. 




Mechanical — Six hours 


Mechanical — Six hours 


Mechanical — Six hours 




per week. 


per week. 


per week. 


h. 


Problems in Stereoto- 


Gear Tooth Outlines 


Making Working and 




my, Cam Outlines. 


and use of Odonto- 


Finished Drawings. 




graph, Special prob- 




^ 




lems in M a c h i ne 
Movements. 





118 Keport of the 



VIII. IOWA. 

The Agricultural College. 

The Iowa State Agricultural College is one of the colleges which re" 
ceives the benefit of the National Land Grant Act of 1862. Tuition is 
free to all Iowa students. 

Six courses of study are offered at the college, all scientific, techni- 
cal or industrial, according to the clear intent and in the full spirit of 
the organic laws of Congress that founded the college. They are, in 
brief : 

1. In industrial science. 

2. For ladies in science, literature and domestic economy. 

3. In agriculture and horticultural. 

4. In mechanical engineering. 

5. In civil engineering. 

6. In veterinary science. 

The requirements for admission are placed quite low so that the 
common schools of the State may furnish the necessary preparation 
or nearly so. The requirements for admission to the freshman class 
are, evidence of a thorough knowledge of orthography, English gram- 
mar, arithmetic, geography. United States history, human physiology 
and (except in the veterinary course), algebra through simple equa- 
tions. 

The department of mechanical engineering is equipped with five 
shop rooms, besides tool and engine and supply rooms, drafting rooms, 
recitation rooms, blue-print room, etc. 

This department aims to graduate mechanical engineers, not mere 
machinists. The young men are fitted not only to superintend the 
manufacture of machinery, but to design it. 

The students have work or shop exercises, involving many princi- 
ples of construction which succeed each other in' systematic order 
through the course. In this way they are able to learn, in the time 
devoted to the shop, the most that is possible about machine tools, how 
to use them and the variety of work they are intended to do. Occa- 
sionally a job of repairing, or constructing a piece for actual use is given 
to the best students, when well suited to replace one or more of the 
regular shop exercises. Thus, without loss of time, they experience 
some of the benefits of performing actual work. All shop work is 
made from mechanical drawing. Practice in vise work and a course 
in forging is taught. In the wood-shop which is well supplied with 
wood-working machinery, work benches and carpenter's tools, a care- 
fully systematized course comprises instruction in carpentry, wood 



Industrial Education Oommisslon. 119 

turning, the running and care of circular, band and jig saws, planers 
and molding machinery — the student actually using each machine. 
Later comes a thorough course in patternmaking. This is preceded 
by careful instruction in molding, where also are studied the reasons 
for the forms and various parts of patterns as a preparation for their 
construction. 

In the mechanical laboratory the older students go through 
with the regular commercial testing of boilers, engines, pumps, etc. 
They accurately measure the weight of steam a boiler gives for each 
pound of fuel burned, testing its quality, wet or dry steam, the num- 
ber of pounds of steam required by the engine for each horse power 
it develops, the quantity and potential of electric current obtained 
from a dynamo for each horse power used, and again the power fur- 
nished by an electric motor, compared with the current supplying it. 
The efficiency of steam pumps and injectors, and of all machinery con- 
suming power is studied in this way, thus supplementing in a most 
thorough manner the engineering instruction of the class room. An 
Olsen testing machine is used for determining the tensile strength, 
elasticity and resistance to crushing, of the materials of engineering, 
wood, iron and steel, the strength of boiler plate and of riveted joints, 
also the strength and stiffness of beams used in buildings and bridges. 
Brick, stone and cement are likewise tested and every possible means 
is adopted to teach the underlying principles of engineering, and to 
illustrate them thoroughly by actual trial and work done by the stu- 
dents themselves. 

It is the policy of the mechanical department to give its students a 
training so practical and thorough, both in shop work and drawing, 
that it shall enable them as machinists and draughtsmen to earn a liv- 
ing, to get a foothold, immediately on graduating from college. At 
the same time the course of study and practice is sufficiently compre- 
hensive and liberal to give graduates a strong impetus toward the 
higher positions in their profession. 

The following extract from the report of the professor in charge of 
this department for 18S6-18S7 shows some of the results of the work : 

'•A radical change has been made in the method of giving instruc- 
tion in shop work — th > change being from what is known as the 
Russian or exercise system which does not produce anything useful 
to the manufacturing system, all of the products of which are to be 
used in the shops or sold in the market. This change has resulted in 
a marked improvement both in the interest of and progress made by 
the students. In fact, quite a number of students have asked for 
extra shop work. Tlie last freshman class voted unanimously to have 
shop work on Saturday in order that they might have a full, uninter- 
rupted day. When a whole class of students will voluntarily forego 
the weekly holiday with its accompaniments of base ball, fishing, etc.i 



120 Report of the 

and work in the shops instead, it shows that they get something which 
they need and appreciate. 

Daring the past two years the students have made in the carpenter 
shop ten carpenters' benches, with tool cases complete, forty desk 
schools for the mechanical drawing rooms, eighteen small instrument 
cases, over seven thousand cleats for the Edison Electric Light Com- 
pany, thirty wood screw clamps, two hundred and twenty turned cedar 
posts, one black walnut office desk, one oak washstand, one oak 
dressing case, and have done about one half the work on a fine ward- 
robe bed. In addition to the above a large variety of work which 
cannot be listed here has been done for the college. 

In the machine shop the students have made ten carpenters' and 
machinists' vises, together with various tools and pieces of apparatus 
for the department, one adjustable speaker's stand, and two improved 
letter presses of original design ; also, a small steam engine, which had 
been set aside as useless, has been worked over into a model for illus- 
trating the action of valve gears and thus made of value in the study 
of the steam engine. When contemplated attachments are added to 
this model, it will be worth at least $300 to the department. 



Industrial Education Commission. 121 



IX. MAINE. 

The Maine State State College of Agriculture and the Mechanical Arts. 

This institution is one of those established in accordance with the 
act of Congress of 1862. 

The purpose of the college, as stated in the annual report for 1888, 
is " to give at a moderate cost, the advantages of a thorough, liberal 
and practical education. It seeks to do this by means of approved 
methods of instruction, and especially by making prominent the sys- 
tem of practically applying in the drawing room, in the laboratory, 
in the shop and in the field, the lessons of the class-room. It thus 
endeavors to make its courses of high practical value." 

While the courses of study fully meet the requisition of the act of 
Congress, and are especially adapted to prepare the students for agri- 
culture and mechanical pursuits, it is designed that they shall be also 
sufficiently comprehensive, and of such a character as to secure the 
discipline of mind and practical experience necessary for entering 
upon other callings or professions. 

Admission. 

Candidates for admission to the freshman class must not be less than 
fifteen years of age, and must pass a satisfactory examination in 
arithmetic, geography, English grammar (especial attention should 
be given to orthography, punctuation and capitals), history of the 
United States, physical geography, book-keeping, algebra to logarithms 
and plane geometry. 

Candidates for advanced standing must sustain a satisfactory exam- 
ination in the preparatory branches, and all in the studies previously 
pursued by the class they propose to enter. 

Tuition is thirty dollars a year, divided equally between the two 
terms. The cost of material and repair of tools for the course of in- 
struction in the vise shop is ten dollars ; in the forge shop, nine dol- 
lars ; in the wood shop, four dollars. 

Courses. 

Five full courses of instruction are provided, viz : A course in 
agriculture, in civil engineering, in mv^chanical engineering, in chem- 
istry, and in science and literature. 

The studies of the several courses are essentially commom for the 
first year, and are valuable not only in themselves, but also as fur- 
nishing a necessary basis for more technical studies and the practical 
instruction of the succeeding years: 



122 Report of the 

The course in mechanichal engineering, in detail is as follows 



First Year. 



FIRST TJ<]RM. 

Solid Geometry. 

Physiology. 

Rhetoric. 

Free-Hand Drawing. 

Dissecting. 

P. M. Labor on F'arm. 



FIRST TERM. 

Descriptive Geometry. 

French. 

Physics. . 

General Chemistry. 

P. M. Carpentry. 

Laboratory Work in Chemistry. 



FIRST TERM, 

Calculus. 

Kinematics. 

Vise Work. 

P. M. ^Machine Drawing. 



SECOND TERM. 



Lorgarithms and Trigonometry. 

Botany. 

French. 

Mechanical Drawing (F. of T.). 

Botanical Laboratory Work (L. of T.). 

P. M. Labor on Farm. 



Second Year. 



SECOND TERM. 

Analj^tical Geometry. 
Drawing and Kinematics. 
Physics. 
Surveying. 

Qualitative Chemistry. 
P. M. Mechanical Drawing and Forge 
Work. 



Third Year. 



SECOND TERM. 

Calculus (F. of T.). 
Descriptive Astronomy (L. of T.). 
Mechanics and Machine Design. 
Logic. 

Elements of Mechanism. 
Link and Valve Motions. 
P. M. Isometric and Cabinet Projection 
and Machine Drawing-. 



Fourth Year. 



FIRST TERM. 

Steam Engineering. 

Practical Astronomy. 

Political Economy. 

P. M. Machine Drawing and Designing 



SECOND TERM. 

Steam Engineering. 

Wood Turning. 

Hydraulic Engineering. 

Mineralogy and Geology. 
j TJ. S. Constitution. 

j P. M. Machine Drawing, Designing and 
Thesis Work. 

It is the design of this course to give such a knowledge of mathe- 
matics, mechanics, principles of mechanism, drawing and manual art? 
as shall enable the student successfully to enter practical life as an 
engineer with the same through education in subjects required to fit 
him for general duties of life as is afforded by the other courses. 

The first two years' work is identical what that of the students in 
civil engineering, except that carpentry and forge work are taken the 
second year in place of part of the drawing. In the junior year, the 
first term is devoted to the geometry of machinery, showing the stu 
dents how different motions may be obtained independently of the 
power required. Special attention is here given to the subject of gear- 



Industrial Education Commission. 123 

ing, and a full set of problems worked out, illustrating cases commonly 
occurring in practice. In the second term of this year the subject of 
the geometry of machinery is continued by lectures on other methods 
of transmitting motion, as by belts, cams, couplings and links. Con- 
siderable time is given to the study and designing of the various valve 
and link motions used on the steam engine During the same term 
instruction is given in mechanics and the laws of the strength of ma- 
terials, the student being required to design machine details in ac- 
cordance with those laws. 

The first part of the first term, senior year, is employed in studying 
the laws of the expansion of steam, and their influence upon the con- 
struction of steam engines and boilers, the subject being illustrated 
by experiments on the shop engine, with the aid of an indicator. 
During the remainder of the term the students are engaged in design- 
ing engines and other machines, and in making detailed drawings of 
the same, sach as would be required to work from in the shop. 

During the last term, senior year, the study of steam engineering is 
continued in its application to compound engines, and the subject of 
hydraulic engineering is taken up briefly by lectures on the storage of 
water for power and the theory and construction of modern water 
wheels. 

Shop Work. 

There are now three shops equipped according to the Russian system, 
and work in these is required of all students in the course. The first 
term of the sophomore year, two hours of each day are devoted to 
work in carpentry, special attention being given to accuracy of work- 
manship. 

During the second term of the same year, the student receives in- 
struction in forge work, including the welding and tempering of steel. 
A course in vise work during the first term of the junior year gives 
the student practice in the various methods of shaping and fitting 
metals by the use of the chisel, hack saw and file. During their sec- 
ond term, the junior students in this course take turns in running the 
shop engine, and are taught the rules of safety and economy in this 
branch of engineering. Instruction in wood-turning is given during 
the last term of the senior year. 

Drawing. 

The work in drawing commences with a course in free-hand and 
elementary mechanical drawing, extending through the sophomore 
year. 

The first term of the junior year, the student spends the time allot- 
ted to drawing in working out practical problems on the construction 
of gear teeth, cams, etc., and in elementary practice in line-shading 
and tinting. 



124 Report of the 

The second term of this year is devoted to isometric projection, and 
the making of finished drawings in ink and in water colors. In the 
first term of the senior year, the student prepares an original design 
of some machine, makes working drawings of its details on tracing 
cloth, and finally prepares copies by the blue-print process. The af- 
ternoon work of the spring term consists of making calculations or de- 
signs of engines and boilers, the construction of the necessary work- 
ing drawings, and making thesis drawings. 

Theses are required of all students as a condition of graduation, and 
must be on some subject directly connected with mechanical engineer- 
ing. 

Students in this course receive the degree of bachelor of mechanical 
engineering upon graduation, with full degree of mechanical engineer 
three years afterwards upon presentation of a satisfactory thesis and 
proof of professional work or study. 

Results. 

The results of the training received in this institution are shown by 
the following extracts from the report mentioned above : 

''At the date of the establishment of the State College, it was esti- 
mated that 70 per cent, of the students graduated from existing col- 
leges found their life's work in the liberal professions. The State Col- 
lege graduated its first class in 1872. The whole number of graduates 
to this date is 278. Of these less than 10 per cent, are embraced in 
the learned professions. 

"A large proportion of the remaining 90 per cent, is engaged in the 
active business pursuits of the country. Many of them have attained 
positions of responsibility, trust and emolument, which only energy, 
intelligence and skill could ha^e given them. It is a marked feature 
of the institution that its broad range of instruction and practice gives 
to its graduates the key to success without the intervention of a term 
of apprenticeship. Leaving the college, they at once become wage 
earners. It is true, also, of such instruction and practice that it often 
develops aptitudes in students for certain lines of employment of the 
existence of which neither themselves nor their most intimate friends 
had been conscious. Many a graduate, but a short time out of col- 
lege, finds himself in some usetul and honorable employment of 
which neither himself nor his friends had dreamed. 

" The eminently practical character of the training they have re- 
ceived enables them to command positions of responsibility and trust 
without the delay of an intervening apprenticeship. A graduate said 
to the writer a few years ago that all the member of his class, includ 
ing himself, obtained honorable and lucrative employment within five 
months from the date of their graduation. 

" During the early years of the college, fears that it would pro\re to 
be only an additional avenue to the 'learned professions' were often 



Industrial Education Commission. V26 

expressed. Such fears have not been realized. Of its graduates less 
than 12 per cent, are found in the ' learned professions.' On the con- 
trary, they are widely scattered among the institutions and industries 
of the country, where they are doing effective work as professors and 
instructors in colleges, as directors-in-chief and assistants in experi- 
ment stations, as teachers, as superintendents of public instruction, 
and of factories and farms, as engineers-in-chief of railroads, and en- 
gineers of divisions, as mechanical engineers in manufacturing estab- 
lishments, as draughtsmen, designers, architects, government survey- 
ors, mechanics and farmers, as veterinarians and superintendents of 
quarantine stations, and as agents at signal stations. 

" Distributed through a range of employments so broad, it would be 
strange if there were not some failures. But the most gratifying as- 
surances are muitipying, each passing year, that the average of suc- 
cess of the graduates of the State College is larger than its most san- 
guine friends had ever claimed or even expected. 

" Wherever found they illustrate the value of the training they have 
received. An officer of the college, who visited the McCormick man- 
ufacturing establishment at Chicago last summer, found three of its 
graduates who were doing all the draughting for a force of 1,800 men, 
and who had displaced in three years double their number, who had 
been doing the same amount of work. Measured by the money 
standard, there are graduates whose services are valued at from $3,000 
to $6,000 per annum." 



126 Eeport op the 



X. MARYLAND. 

Baltimore Manual Training- School. 

An ordinance authorizing the establishment of a '' School for Man- 
ual Training" in the city of Baltimore, under the control of the 
^' Board of Commissioners of Public Schools," was passed by the city 
council, October 20, 1883. 

" The school was opened March 3, 1884, with sixty students, being 
the first annual training school in the United States, established in 
connection with the city school system." 

The object of the school is as follows : " Instruction and practice 
in the use of tools, and such instruction as may be deemed necessary 
in mathematics, drawing, and the English branches of a high school 
course. The tool instruction includes carpentry, wood-turning, pat- 
ternmaking, chipping and filing, forge work, molding, soldering and 
brazing, the use of machine shop tools, and such other instruction of 
a similar character as may be deemed advisable to add to the fore- 
going from time to time, it being the intention to divide the working 
hours of the students as nearly as possible, equally between manual 
and mental exercises. This school differs from the city college in 
omitting from its required studies foreign and ancient languages, in 
giving prominence to mechanical drawing, andparticularly in afford- 
ing scientific instruction and actual practice in the care and use of 
tools. 

'' The school does not teach trades. Its aim is more comprehensive 
— it lays the foundation for many trades, and at the same time recog- 
nizes the value of intellectual discipline. 

" It is not assumed that every boy who enters this school will be a 
mechanic. Some will find that they have no taste for manual arts, 
and will turn into other paths — law, medicine or literature. Some, 
who develop both natural skill and strong intellectual powers, will 
push on through the Polytechnic School into the higher realms of 
professional life, as engineers or scientists. 

'^ Others will find their greatest usefulness as well as highest happi- 
ness in some branch of mechanical work into which they will readily 
step when they leave school. All will gain intellectually by their 
experience in contract with things. The general result will be an in- 
creasing interest in manufacturing pursuits, more intelligent me- 
chanics, more skillful manufacturers, better lawyers, more skilful 
physicians, and more useful citizens." 

Candidates for admission must be at least fourteen years of age, 
and must pass a satisfactory examination in reading, spelling, 



Industrial Education Commissions'. 127 

writing, geography, English composition, and the fundamental opera- 
tions of arithmetic as applied to intergers, common and decimal frac- 
tions, denominate numbers, and the extraction of the square and cube 
root of numbers. Ability to use the English language correctly is 
especially desired. Boys fourteen years of age who are members of 
the city college or pupils in the seventh grade of a grammar or ''pub- 
lic school " for half a year or more will be admitted without exami- 
nation upon recommendation of their principal. 

The course of instruction covers three years and is as follows : 

First Year. 
Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, mensuration, English language, his- 
tory, geography, physiology and physics. 
Drawing. — Geometrical and sketching. 

Shop Work. — Carpentry, wood turning, forging, proper care and use 
of tools. 

Second Year. 

Algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry, mensuration, physics, his- 
tory, English literature and mechanics. 

Drawing. — Geometrical and mechanical or architectural. 

Shop Work. — Pattern making, vise work, welding, tempering, sold- 
dering and brazing. 

Third Year. 

Geometry, plane trigonometry, physics, mechanics, book-keeping, 
literature, chemistry, political economy, geology and engineering. 

Drawing. — Machine, architectural and designing. 

Shop Work. — Machine shop work, filing, turning, drilling, planing, 
etc.. study of machinery. 

Tbroughout the course, about one hour per day is given to drawing, and about 
two hours to shop work. The remainder of the school day is devoted to study and 
education. 

The following list gives the shop work in detail : 

First Year. 

Carpentry — Fifteen Weeks. 

Care and use of tools ; half lap and mortise and tenon, 1^ by 1^ by 
4 inches ; half lap joint, dovetail and mitre, 1^ by 1^ by 4 inches ; 
dovetailing; a stool, 12 by 7 by 5^ inches ; frame for door, 3 by 18 by 
1 inches; scarf, three joints; knife box, 13 by 7f by 2f inches ; stairs, 
carriages, risers and steps ; truss, rafters, with king and queen posts. 

Wood Ttirning — Five Weeks. 

Care and use of lathe — lectures; care and use of turning tools — 
lectures; cylinder between centers; cone between centers; step 
cylinder between centers ; inverted cone between centers ; geomet- 
rical piece in angles ; geometrical piece in round; geometrical piece 
table leg; chuck work. 



128 Report of the 

Course in Forge Shop. — Twenty Weeks. 

Forge. — Mechanism of and care of forge and smith's tools, prepa- 
ration of forge for fire, building and managing the fire, heat of fire, 
fluxes. 

Tools. — Anvil, sledge, hand hammer, square tongs of various kinds, 
hot chisel, cold chisel, swages, fullers, flatters, formers, heading tools, 
mandrils. 

Forging. — Forge square iron out of round, round out of square, 
octagonal out of square, hexagonal out of round, head up a rivet, head 
up a bolt. 

Bending. — Turn a piece of flat iron to a right angle, the corners 
being brought square and neat, turn a flange, bend an eye, bend an 
ear, make a square out of a piece of flat iron. 

Welding. — Make a jump weld, weld two pieces together forming a 
cross, make a split weld, a scarf weld, a pipe weld, bend and weld a 
washer of flat iron, make a round ring out of a piece of square iron, 
weld a square, make four or five links of a chain out of three-eighths 
round iron, iron to steel. 

Tool Making. — Forge and finish a set of tools, a wedge, center 
punch, flat-nose calking tool, cape chisel, cold chisel, a drift, heading 
tool calipers, straight-edge, tee square, hand hammer, set of drills, 
set of lathe tools, make and finish a (cross pene) fitter's hammer, a 
(cross pene) chipping hammer, a (straight pene) chipping hammer, 
a (round pene) blacksmith's hammer. 

Tempering. — Theory of tempering, temperatures and colors, water, 
oil, etc. Temper chisels, turning and boring tools for wood and 
metals. 

Second Year. 
Patter nmaking- — Fifteen Weeks. 

Care and use of tools. Lectures. 

Gib. 

Crank. 

Cylinder head. 

Connecting rod brasses. 

Piston head. k Complete set of patterns for a steam 

Piston rings. . engine. 

Cross head. 

Cross head guide. 

Engine Frame. 

Cylinder. j 

Molding — Five Weeks. 

Care and use of molders tools, lectures ; crucibles, furnaces and 
cupolas, lectures; green sand, dry sand, loam. 



Industbial Education Commission. 129 

Vise Work — Fifteen Weeks. 

Care and use of tools, lectures; square prism rectangular block 
with champered edges, octagonal prism, rack teeth, right angle piece, 
anvil (free hand filing), elipse, circle and segments, riveting, ham- 
mer (free hand filing), ring, slide rest, open slot piece, gear wheel, 
inlaid plate, parallel filing, tongue and groove, dovetail, screw (free 
hand filing), geometrical form, key way and champer. 

j^oldering and Brazing — Five Weeks. 

The names and qualities of the various metals used ; degrees of heat 
necessary for soldering, brazing, tinning, burning; the proportions of 
metals in order to produce the best results ; the modes of applying 
heat in soldering, brazing, tinning, burning; method of overcoming 
difficulties caused by overheating; method of burning metal together; 
preparation of metals for soldering, brazing, tinning and burning; 
exercises in the process of uniting the edges or surfaces of similar or 
dissimilar metals and alloys by partial fusion. 

The course familiarizes the student with the tools of the metal 
worker, and prepares him for the construction of work from drawings. 

Third Year. 
Forty Weeks. 

Machine shop work; names, uses and care of hand and machine 
tools — lectures; machine shop methods — lectures; finish up castings 
and forgings of former lessons; finish up a design for graduation. 

A course in mechanical engineering was added in 1888. There is 
also a preparatory department connected with the institution, to 
which boys who are pupils in the sixth grade of a grammar or " pub- 
lic school " for half a year or more, are admitted without examina- 
tion, upon recommendation of their principal. 

The course of study, covering two years, is as follows : 

First Year. 
Language; reading; writing; arithmetic; algebra ; geometry; geo- 
graphy; history of United States. Drawing — forty-five minutes each 
day. Sketching from models — free-hand drawing. Map of Maryland 
and of the United States. 

Wood Work — Seventy -five Minutes each Day — Twenty Weeks. 

Care and use of tools; to lay off work; ripping and cross-cutting; 
planing trueing and bringing lumber to a width and thickness; nail- 
ing. 

Mortise and tenon; blind mortise and tenon; half lap joints; 
through mortise and tenon rabbeted ; dowel joints, plain box (6x4x2 
inches) nailed together. 
9 Ed. Com. 



130 Keport of the 

Sheet Metal Work — Seventy --five Minutes each bay — Twenty Weeks. 

Care and use of tools; how to make and care for the fire in a char- 
coal furnace; how to lay oif the work. Soft solder. 

Solder two pieces of tin together; groove and solder a seara ; plain 
pipe, 6 inches long, 2 inches diameter; rectangular pan, 4x8x1 J 
inches deep; square pipe, 6 inches long, 2 inches square; square box, 
with loose top, 4x2x2 inches; round pan, 4 and 5 inches diameter, \\ 
inches deep ; elbow, right angle, 6-6x2 inches deep ; tin cup, 3^ inches 
diameter 2 inches deep ; butter kettle, 8x5x5 inches deep ; tea or cof- 
fee pot, Z\ — 1 inches diameter 6 inches deep. 

Second Yeab. 

Language; reading; writing; arithmetic; geography; history; 
algebra, geometry. Drawing forty five minutes each day; free-hand 
and maps. 

Wood Work. 

Seventy five Mh.utes each Day — Tiuenty Weeks. 

Care and use of wood-worker's bench tools, bracket saw and foot- 
lathe. 

Bracket; combination bracket; easel; fancy frame; turning 
cylinder, cone, truncated code, step cylinder, geometrical form, round 
form, table leg. 

Sheet Metal Sheet. 

Seventy- Hve Minutes each Day — Twenty Weeks. 

Care and use of tools and how to lay out work; make and care for 
fire in furnace ; hard solder; tin a piece of brass, tin a piece of cop- 
per; joint together copper to copper, brass to brass, copper to brass, 
copper to iron; make a piece of copper pipe six inches long, three- 
fourths of an inch in diameter; elbow, right angled, 4-4x| inches in 
diameter; copper bowl, beaters, six inches in diameter three inches 
deep ; a biass vase, beaten in halves and brazed together eight inches 
high ; a copper vase, fluted, eight inches high ; a checker board table, 
copper and brass ; hemisphere of copper, beaten, six inches in diam- 
eter ; a brass vase, beaten and brazed together, eight inches high; 
copper vase, fluted, eight inches high; a checker board table, brass 
and copper. 

Eesults. 

The following extracts from [the annual report of the principal in 
December, 1887, will show some of the results of the work : 

The first class w^as graduated in June, 1887. Of the twenty five 
young men composing it, '' one is an instructor in the school, one civil 
engineer, two electrical engineers, one marine engineer (now at sea), 
one house carpenter, two patternmakers, one draughtsman. one farmer, 
one car-builder, one machine supply store, one architect, six macbin- 



Industrial Education Commission. 131 

ists, one student, and two are in mercantile pursuits, all with bright 
prospects for a useful and properous future. 

'•Of the fifty-five students who have been withdrawn from the school 
during the year, all but six are following mechanical pursuits. 

"The course of study and shop work as indicated above has been 
strictly adhered to and the results are satisfactory. * * * 

" The nine by twelve inch cylinder steam engine which was built 
by the members of the graduating class, from their old drawings, 
was set up in the shops in the place of the old one. It does the full 
work, is noiseless in its operation and has proven that it was well made 
and correctly adjusted. " 

The growth of the school has been. 

Students on roll March, 1881, 62 

Students on roll June 30, 1881, . . : 100 

Students on roll December 31, 1884, 147 

Students on roll June 30, 1885, 112 

Students on roll December 31, 1885, 94 

Students on roll June 30, 1886, 110 

Students on roll December 31,1886, 150 

Students on roll June 30, 1887, 204 

Students on roll December 31, 1887, 273 



132 Eeport of the 



XI. MASSACHUSETTS. 

1. Boston Public Schools. 

The subject of manual training in connection with the public 
schools of Boston had been actively discussed for several years pre- 
vious to 1883, when it was made the subject of special report by a 
committee chosen for that purpose. 

The committee outlined a plan and submitted the following orders : 

Ordered^ That the city councils be requested to appropriate the 
sum of $2,500 for the equipment and maintenance of a manual train- 
ing school. 

0:'dered^ That the city council be requested to fit up rooms in the 
basement of the Latin school building, where classes from the gram- 
mar schools can be instructed in the use of simple hand tools during 
the ensuing school year. 

In April, 1884, eleven classes, containing in all two hundred and 
twenty boys from ten grammar schools, had insruction in carpentry 
once a week. The lesson was two hours long, and boys were allowed 
to stay a part or the whole of a third hour if they desired. The boys 
were fourteen or more years old, and members of the first and second 
classes in the grammar schools. Accommodations were provided in 
the basement of the Latin school building. 

The progress of the work is shown in the report of the superinten- 
dent of public schools, issued in March, 1885. 

" The experiment in manual training for boys has made interesting 
progress. Two hundred boys fiom ten different grammar schools 
have been under instruction in carpentry two houis a week since 
September. Most of them were beginners at that time, but a few 
were members of the classes formed last April. The boys were se- 
lected by the masters of the grammar schools, no boy being taken 
who was not fourteen years old, and who had not the expressed per- 
mission of his parents to take instruction. This limit as to age is 
well suited to the usual size and strength of boj^s, and has the addi- 
tional advantage of avoiding some possible legal difficulties. 

"A course of lessons drawn up at the beginning of the year by the 
teacher, has been followed with some approach to uniformity ; but 
here, as everywhere else ,widely different degrees of native aptitude, as 
well as of attention to instruction, show themselves among the boys. 
There are some whose ' fingers are all thumbs;' and there are others 
who make square work and good joints almost from the beginning. 
A very little observation among the boys is enough to show that a 
clear mind generally accompanies the skilful hand that manual skill 



Industrial Education Commission. 133 

has its mental as well as its physical side, and that manual training 
is really a means of mental training. 

" The interest in their work shown by the boys is very lively, such 
as 1 have seldom seen surpassed in any other kind of school work. 
Many boys come to the shop afternoons, an hour before the appointed 
time, and get the teacher's permission to work three hours instead of 
two. Some, seeing the gas-fixtures provided for use on dark days, 
and fancjang that instruction was going to be given in the evening, 
begged to be allowed to come and work then, as well as in the day- 
time. But there were others, of course, whose ardor cooled as the 
novelty wore off, and the truth began to dawn upon them that man- 
ual training was after all work and not play. Still tlie number of 
these last was not large enough to disturb the generally favorable 
impression the classes jjroduced. 

•' The experiment has already gone far enough to prove that work of 
this kind can be joined to the ordinary grammar school work with 
good effect. It enlisted the sympathy, encouragement and support of 
the masters from the beginning; and to this cause the success already 
achieved is largely due. So long as there are nearly three thousand 
boys in the grammar schools, fourteen, fifteen or more years old, it 
will be desirable to give them good opportunities to discover and im- 
prove their mechanical aptitudes, and thus to gain a mental discipline 
which otherwise they would miss. But where is the time for a new 
branch of instruction? The answer has been given that m'^nual 
training, being a kind of physical exercise, is a relief from other 
school- work, and therefore a boy will do all his regular studies and 
the shop work .too in the time usually given to the former. This an- 
swer can be defended to some extent by an appeal to experience. 
Still it is taking lather high ground to say that manual training can 
be added to the branches of instruction now pursued without dimin- 
ishing the latter. I would rather take a more moderate position and 
pay due regard to the averge possibilities. It would be wiser to 
make room for a new branch of instruction by dropping some of the 
old. For example, if the question were between physics, as com- 
monly taught out of a book, on the one hand, and instruction in 
carpentry on the other, I should unhesitatingl}^ prefer the latter. In- 
deed, by means of the latter, we might be able to get some real 
instruction in the former. The time given to carpentry would not 
be wholly a loss to the other studies, for some of them, as drawing 
and the geometrical part of arithmetic would be aided. 

"The manual training practicable in school rooms seems to be limited 
to those kinds of work which can be done a1 a bench with hand tools. 
Within this limit the way now seems clear to spread instruction among 
the schools, as far aa may be thought desirable. While I am more 
than gratified with the progress thus far made I, nevertheless, deem 
it important to remember that a fully equipped manual training school 



134 Keport of the 

will find its proper place in the school S3^stem, not in the grammar 
schools, but above them, and side by side with the high school ; and J 
trust that the means may be found ultimately for carrying out the full 
plan." 

The lessons in carpentry, in detail, were as follows : 

Lesson I. — A board four feet long and twelve inches wide, of undressed lumber. 
By the use of chalk and line strike off two or three spaces three-qnarters of an inch 
apart for the use of splitting saw. With the rule and pencil mark otf five or six three- 
quarter inch spaces, and square across with the try-square, for the use of cutting-off 
saw. After using these tools what remains of the board is to be cut into pieces of the 
right dimensions for a box fourteen inches long, six inches wide, and four inches 
deep. The purpose of this lesson is to teach the use of the splitting and cutting-off 
saws. 

Lesson 11. — This lesson brings into use the different bench planes. First,remove the 
iron from the frame, grind it on the grindstone if necessary, whet it on the oil-stone, 
and then adjust for use. Taking the stock cut for a box in the last lesson, plane one 
side and one edge of the board square ; then gauge Math the marking-gauge, and plane 
to four inches in width, squaring ends with the butt-plane, and nail together. 

Lesson IIL — Get out stock two inches wide and seven-eighths of an inch thick, and 
put together a box tAvelve inches long and six inches wide, by mitering the ends or 
cutting them at an angle of forty-five degrees. 

Lesson IV. — A miter-box. Stock eighteen inclies long. Bottom planed to four 
inches wide. Take out of wind by use of straight-edge. Sides five inches wide, and 
nailed to the bottom. Cut with a saw across the two sides, at an angle of forty-five 
degrees, to the right and to the left. 

Lesson V. — Saw and plane some stock three inches wide, and puttogethera box by 
cutting the ends in the miter-box. This lesson is to test the miter-box. If correct, 
the ends of the box will come together square. 

Lesson VI. — Stock two inches wide, with a rabbet cut for glass and the two edges 
beaded, mitered, and dowelled together for a picture-frame. TJiis affords another 
test of the miter-box. 

Lesson VII. — Take two pieces of board, each six inches long and five inches wide, 
planed and squared, and put together by a common dovetail joint. 

Lesson VIII. — Take two pieces of board, each six inches long and five inches wide, 
and put them together by blind dovetailing. 

Lesson IX. — A small cabinet, nine inches square, halved together, witli two draw- 
ers put together by blind dovetailing. Cross-bar between the two drawers dove- 
tailed in. Made of black walnut or of white wood. 

Lesson X. — A chest two feet long, twelve inches wide, and twelve inches deep, 
dovetailed and glued together, the bottom fitted inside. Base thfee inches wide, 
chamfered on the upper edge and mitered together at the corners. Trimming around 
the top beaded, two inches wide, and mitered together at the corners. 

Lesson JTJ.— Make a mortise andtennon, and fit them together. This is a prepa- 
ration for the next lesson. 

Les on XII. — Cover for the chest (Lesson X). Put together with mortise and 
tenon, with a panel in the center. 

Lesson XIII.— A writing-desk, twelve inches long, nine inches wide, three inches 
deep, at the back, and one inch and a half deep in front, with compartments for pens 
and ink. Cover put on with hinges. 

Lesson X7F.— Stock three inches wide, two inches thick, and six inches long, 
framed together with a key-tenon. 

Lesson J^F.— Table with a drawer. Top .three feet long and one foot eight inches 
wide, made of two boards glued together. Frame put together with mortise, tenon, 
and draw-bore. Cross-pieces six inches wide. Legs square' and tapering. 

The tools at each bench were : Splitting-saw, cutting off saw, fore-plane, short 
jointer, smoothing-plane, butt-plane, hammer, mallet, rule, try-square, bevel, mark- 
ing-gauge, mortise-gauge, five auger-bits and a brace, five firmer-chisels, screw- 



Industrial Education Commission. 135 

driver, counter-sink, brad-awl, scratch-awl, nail-set, chalk-line and reel, oil-stone, 
oil-can, bench-brush. 

A few^ tools in addition to those at the benches are furnished, wlien needed, to in- 
dividuals. 

In 1886 the Superintendent reported: ''The interest is unabated, 
and the progress of the two hundred boys with their work is even 
more .satisfactory this year than it was last. The course of lessons has 
been improved ; some of the articles made last year having been re- 
placed by others better adapted to the purpose of giving the best 
training possible in the limited time. 

"The experiment has now gone far enough to prove that this kind 
of training can be joined with the ordinary grammar school work 
without practical inconvenience, and with good eiFect on the boys. 
There have been calls from other parts of the city for similar schools 
to be opened there, and the promise is that one more will be started 
in September. 

'' One fact, noticed in the last committee's report, is significant, and 
that is, the lively desire shown on the part of last year's boys to con- 
tinue in the school this year; which, however, they could not be al- 
lowed to do, being then graduates of the grammar schools. There is 
no doubt that boys once engaged in a course of manual training will, 
as a rule, conceive a strong desire to keep on. The consciousness of 
new power avvakened and trained for practical ends, is very gratifying 
to them. Indeed, we find among these boys just what the psycholo- 
gist would have led us to expect — a class of minds which can be 
reached in no other way so well as through their mechanical aptitudes. 
It seems certain if a school with an extensive course of manual 
training should be opened, there would be no Jack of interested pupils 
to fill it. That there are many parents who would appreciate the 
value of such a scoool for the training of their boys is plainly enough 
indicated by the manifestations of parental interest in what is being 
done now." 

Through 1887 the course was substantially the same, there being no 
chance for advancement in carpentry work until better accommoda- 
tions could be secured. These, however, were looked for in the near 
future. 

2. Massachusetts Institute of Technolog-y. 

The foundation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was laid 
in a report by Professor William E. Rogers, entitled ''Objects and 
Plan of an Institute of Technology, including a Society of Arts, a 
Museum of Arts, and a school of Indust?ial Science." A charter for 
the institution thus projected was granted by the Legislature of Mas- 
sachusetts in an act dated April 10. 1861. In this charter, the three- 
fold plan outlined by Professor Rogers, who became the first president 
of the Institute of Technology, was preserved. 

The School of Industrial Science, developed along the lines indi- 



136 Keport of the 

cated at its foundation, has become the prominent feature of the work 
of the institute; and. indeed, nearly all persons know it, and it alone, 
as the institute. The school was opened in February, 1865, with 
twenty-seven pupils. It is devoted to the teaching of science as ap- 
plied to the various engineering professions, viz * civil, mechanical, 
mining, electrical and chemical engineering, as well as to architecture, 
chemistry, metallurgy, physics and natural history. Courses of a less 
technical nature, designed as a preparation for business callings, and 
a course preparatory to the professional study of medicine, are also 
given. 

Courses of Instruction. 

The School of Industrial Science of the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology provides an extended series of scientific and literary 
studies, and of practical exercises. The courses of study include the 
physical, chemical and natural sciences and their application; pure 
and applied mathematics ; drawing ; the English, French, German 
and other modern languages; history; political science; and inter- 
national and business law; These studies and exercises are so arranged 
as to afford a liberal and practical education in preparation for active 
pursuits, as well as a thorough training for most of the scientific pro- 
fessions. 

Regular Courses. — The following regular courses of study, each of 
four years' duration, have been established; and, for proficiency in 
any one of them, the degree of Bachelor of Science, S. B.,in the course 
pursued is conferred. 

I. Civil and topographical engineering. 
II. Mechanical engineering. 

III. Mining engineering. 

IV. Architecture. 
Y. Chemistry. 

YI. Electrical engineering. 
YII. Natural history. 
YIII. Physics. 
IX. General course. 
X. Chemical engineering. 
The first year for all courses is the same, and contains subjects 
which are considered essential as preliminary training, or as a founda- 
tion for the more strictly professional studies of the later years of all 
courses. At the end of the first year, the regular student selects the 
course which he will pursue during the remaining three years; and 
his work becomes more specialized thereafter as it progresses. 
The studies of the first year are as follows : 



Industrial Education Commission 



137 



FIRST TERM. 

Solid Geometry. 

Algebra. 

General Chemistry. 

Chemical Laboratory. 

History of the English Language. 

English Composition. 

French (or German). 

Mechanical and Free-hand Drawing. 

Military Drill. 



SECOND TERM. 

Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. 

General Chemistry. 

Chemical Laboratory. 

Political History since 1815. 

French (or German). 

Mechanical and Free-hand Drawing. 

Millitary Drill. 



To be admitted as a regular student in the first year's class, the ap- 
plicant must have obtained the age of seventeen years, and must pass 
a satisfactory examination in arithmetic, algebra, plane geometry, 
French, English language and literature, history ^nd geopraphy. 

Every student is required, on entering, to file a bond in the sum of 
$200, as security for the payment of bills. If, for any reason, such a 
bond cannot be obtained, a deposit of fifty dollars, as security, is 
accepted. 

The tuition fee for regular students is $200 per year. 

To be admitted to a more advanced class the applicant must be of 
correspondingly increased age and must in general pass satisfactorily 
the examination for admission to the first year's class, and examina- 
tions on all of the subjects given in the early years of the course 
which he desires to enter. 

Graduates of colleges are admitted to the institute without exami- 
nation, and are permitted to enter any of the courses at such a 
point as their previous range of studies allows. 

Within each of the regular courses the student is given a consid- 
abie latitude of choice in the selection of the branch of his intended 
profession to which he will specially devote his energies in the later 
years of his study. This is accomplished by means of lines of options. 
Thus in civil engineering, he may elect either sanitary engineering, 
railroad engineering and management, or geodesy; in mechanical 
engineering, he may choose either marine engineering, locomotive 
construction, or mill engineering; and similarly for other courses. 

The course in mechanical engineering aims to equip the student 
with such training in pure and applied mathematics as shall qualify 
him to deal with the engineering problems of his profession from the 
most favorable standpoint. It attempts by instruction , both theoretical 
and practical, to acquaint him with engineering practice, and to give 
him a proper groundwork upon which to base a professional career. 
The more strictly professional work of the course may be classified as 
follows : 

1. Mathematics, physics and applied mechanics, given outside the 
department; the last including the study of and practice in testing 
the strength of materials. 

2. Recitation-room work of the department proper, beginning with 



138 



Repoet of the 



a study of the principles of mechanism, the construction of gear-teeth, 
etc., and continued by courses on machine tools and cotton machinery. 
Courses are given on the slide-valve and link, thermo-dynamics, theory 
of the steam engine, and on steam boilers. The fourth year instruction 
includes such mechanical engineering subjects as dynamometers, 
governors, fly-wheels, springs, effects of reciprocating parts of engines, 
injectors, s^eam -pumps, cylinder condensation, hydraulics and hy- 
draulic motors, eic. An option is given among courses on marine 
engineering, locomotive construction and mill engineering. 

3. Drawing-room work. The students in the second year make 
working-drawings from measurements, and the drawings necessary in 
connection with the course in mechanism and gear construction. In 
the third year they make detail and assembly drawings from machinery, 
and this is followed by mechanism designs and boiler drawings. In 
the fourth year a course in machine designs is given. 

4. Shop work, including carpentry, patternmaking, forging, chipping, 
filing and machine-tool work. 

5. Mechanical engineering laboratory work. This begins with drill 
in steam engine tests in the second term of the third year, and is con- 
tinued throughout the fourth year, including tests of boilers, pumps, 
power, etc., and a large amount of investigation. 

The course in detail is as follows : 

FiBST Year. 

[Same tor all courses, as given above.] 

Second Year. 



FIRST TERM. 

Principles of Mechanism. 
Construction of Gear Teeth. 
Dra^ving. 

Carpentry and Wood Turning (shop- 
work). 
Analj'tic Geometry. 
Descriptive Geometry. 
Physics. 

Political Economy. 
German. 



SECOND TERM. 

Mechanism of Mill ^Machinery. 

Mechanism of Shop Machinery. 

Drawing. 

Pattern Work (shopwork). 

Ditferential Calculus. 

Physics. 

English Prose. 

German. 



Third Year. 



FIRST TERM. 

Slide Valve. Link Motion. 

Thermo-dynamics. 

Steam Engineering. 

Drawing, Design and Surveying. 

Forging (shopwork). 

Integral Calculus. 

General Statics. 

Ph5'sics : Lectures and Laboratory. 

German. 



SECOND TERM. 

steam Engineering. 
Drawing, Design and Surveying. 
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory. 
Forging, Chipping and Filing (shop- 
work). 
Kinematics and Dynamics. 
Strength of Materials. 
Phj^sical Laboratory. 
European History. 
German. 



Industrial Education Commission. 139 



Fourth Year. 



FIRST TERM. 



SECOND TERM. 



Hydraulic Engineering:. 
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory. 
Engine Lathe Work (shopwork). 
Strength and Stability of Structures. 
Theory of Elasticity. 
Constitutional History. 
Thesis Work. 

O'piions. 

1. Marine Engineering. 

2. Locomotive Construction. 

3. Mill Engineering. 



Mechanical Engineering. 

Hydraulics. 

Machine Design. 

Mechanical Engineering Laboratory. 

Engine Lathe Work (shopwork). 

Strength of Materials. 

Metallurg3^ 

Heating and Ventilation. 

O'ptions. 

1. Marine Engineering. 

2. Locomotive Construction. 

3. Mill Engineering. 

The instruction in theoretical and applied mechanics begins with the 
study of the composition and resolulion of the forces, the general Jaws of 
kinematics and d^mamics, mathematically discussed, the principles 
governing the determination of the stresses in the different members 
of trusses, center of gravity, moment of inertia and the ordinary prin- 
ciples of the strength of materials. 

The more advanced part of this instruction embraces the completion 
of the study of strength of m.aterials, including laboratory work, theory 
of elasticity, main principles of the stability of arches and domes and 
special study of dynamics. 

The methods of the differential and integral calculus are freely used 
whenever they are the most convenient. 

The object of the laboratory of applied mechanics is to give to the 
students, as far as possible, the opportunity of becoming familiar, by 
ac ual test, with the strength and elastic properties of the materials 
used in construction. 

It is furnished with the following apparatus : 

1. An Olsen testing machine of fifty thousand pounds capacity, capable of deter- 
mining the tensile strength and elasticity of specimens not more than two feet long, 
and the compressive strength of short siDccimens. 

2. A testing machine of fifty thousand pounds capacity, caj)able of determining 
the transverse strength and stiffness of beams up to tAventy-five feet in length, as 
well as many of the framing joints used in practice. 

3. Machinery capable of determining the strength, twist and deflection of shafting 
when subjected to such combinations of torsional and transverse loads as occur in 
practice, and while running. 

4. Machinery for making time-tests of the transverse strength and deflection of full 
size beams. 

5. A machine for testing the tensile strength of mortars and cements. 

6. Apparatus for testing the strength of ropes. 

7. The accessorj^ apparatus needed for measuring stretch, deflection and twist. 

The classes are divided into small sections when making tests wiih 
the machines. 

All the experiments are so chosen as to make the student better 
acquainted with the resisting properties of materials, many of them 
forming part of some original research. Those on transverse strength 



140 Kepokt of the 

and stiffness have also determined certain constants for use in con- 
struction which had not previously been determined from tests on full 
size pieces. 

The instruction in mechanical engineering is given by means of lec- 
tures and recitations and by practice in the drawing rooms and in the 
mechanical engineering laboratory. Frequent visits, also, are made 
to machine shops and manufacturing establishments to witness ma- 
chinery in operation and manufacturing processes, in addition to those 
which can be seen at the institute itself. 

The laboratory work, in its earlier portions, is devoted to some of 
the more simple experiments, such as will impart to the students a 
familiarity with the manner of running the engines, taking indicator 
cards, and using the other apparatus in the laboratory. The later lab- 
orator}^ work takes very largely the form of original research, and it 
is intended that the students of this laboratory shall, under suitable 
direction, undertake the experimental investigation of a number of 
important engineering problems. 

A large amount of drawing is done by the students throughout their 
course in connection with their regular work, drawing for mere prac- 
tice ceasing at the end of the first year. A style is adopted thatis be- 
lieved to be a good one, and it is adhered to throughout, and early in 
their course the students are taught to use the "■ Blue process." 

Besides the teaching done by the regular corps of instructors, lec- 
tures on special subjects are given by gentlemen actively engaged in 
the profession. 

The objects to be accomplished by the laboratory of mechanical en- 
gineering are the following : 

1. To give to the students practice in such experimental work as 
they are liable to be called upon to perform in the practice of their 
profession, as boiler and engine tests, pump tests, calorimetric work, 
measurement of power, etc. 

2. To give to the students practice in carrying on original investi- 
gations in mechanical engineering subjects with such care and accu- 
racy as to render the results of real value to the engineering commu- 
nity. 

3. By publishing, from time to time, the results of such investiga- 
tions, to add gradually to the common stock of knowledge. 

The laboratory contains, as a portion of its equipments : 

1. An eighty-horse power Porter-Allen engine, by which power is also furnished 
to the new building and to the mining department. 

2. A six:teen-horse-power Harris-Corless engine, used almost entirely for expeii- 
mental purposes. This is furnished, in addition to its own automatic cut-ofi' gover- 
nor, with a throttle go%^ernor, so arranged that either can be used ; the former being, 
in addition, so constructed that the speed of the engine can be varied at will. 

The exhaust of each engine is connected witli a surface condenser, and thence 
with a tank on scales, so that the water passing through the engines can be weighed. 

3. An eight-horse-power steam engine used for giving instruction in valve-setting, 
etc. 



Industrial Education Commission. 141 

4. Three surface condensers, one of which is arranged in sections, so that the con- 
densing water can be made to transverse the length of the condenser, once, twice, or 
three times, at the option of the experimenter. 

5. Machinery for determining the tension required in a belt or rope to enable it to 
carry a given power, at a given speed, with no more than a given amount of slip. 

6. Several friction brakes. 

7. A steam pump so arranged as to enable the students to make pump tests, indi- 
cating both the steam and the water cylinder, weighing the exhaust steam, and aUo 
the water pumped. 

8. A six-inch Swain turbine-wheel, so arranged that it can be run under a head of 
fifteen feet, and that experiments can be made on the power exerted, the efficiency, 
etc., under ditierent gates. 

9. Several calorimeters of different kinds, 

10. Two transmission dynamometers. 

11. Cotton machinery as follows, viz : two cards, drawing frame, a speeder, a fly- 
frame, a rit)g-frame, and a mule. 

12. Apparatus for testing injectors. 

13. A mercurial pressure column. 

14. A mercujial vacuum column. 

15. Apparatus for determining the quantity of steam issuing from a given orifice, 
or through a short tube, under a given difference of pressure. 

16. Apparatus for testing dynamometers. 

17. A good supply of inrlicators, planimeters, gauges, thermometers, and ane- 
mometers and assessory apparatus. 

18. Two horizontal tubular boilers and a large Babcock & "Wilcox boiler. 

Another boiler, a forty horse-power Brown engine, a number of 
looms and other apparatus in the mechanical laboratories on Garrison 
street, are available for the purpose of experiment. 

As examples of the work done in the laboratory, the following ex- 
periments are enumerated: Tests of the evaporative powers of boil- 
ers; tests of the effects of different cut-off, compression, back pres- 
sure, speed, etc.. of engines under constant or variable loads ; calori- 
metric tests; dynametric measurements; investigations of the ten- 
sion required in a belt to carry a given power, at a given speed, with 
no more than a given amount of slip ; experiments on the efficiency 
of condensers under different conditions; on the efficiency of a tur- 
bine, etc. 

The instruction in shopwork. — Practical instruction in the nature 
of the materials of construction, and the typical operations concerned 
in the arts, is considered a very valuable adjunct to the theoretical 
treatment of professional subjects. Mechanical laboratories have 
been provided, and furnished with the more important hand and ma- 
chine tools, so that the student may acquire a direct- knowledge of the 
nature of metals and woods, some manual skill in the use of tools, and 
a thorough knowledge of what can be accomplished with them. These 
laboratories are now located in the building on Garrison street, and 
are equipped as follows : — 

The carpenter, wood-turning, and patternmaking departments contain 40 carpen- 
ters' benches, 2 circular-saw benches, a swing-saw, 2 jig-saws, a buzz-planer, a mor- 
tising machine, 36 wood lathes, a large patternmakers's lathe, and 36 pattermakers' 
benches. The foundry contains a cupola furnace for melting iron, 2 brass furnaces 
and 32 moulders' benches. The forge shop contains 32 forges, 7 blacksmiths' vises 



142 Report of the 

and 1 blaoksrriith's hand drill. The machine-shop contains 23 engine lathes and 14 
hand lathes of recent approved patterns, 2 machine drills, 2 planers, a shaping ma- 
chine, a universal milling-machine, a grinding lathe, and 33 vise-benches arranged 
for instruction in vise-work. 

3. Cambridge Manual Training School. 

The experiment of giving instruction in manual training to the 
pupils of the public school has been tried in a limited way for the 
past four years. Annually seven classes of twelve pupils each, selected 
from the seven grammar schools, have received elementary instruc- 
tion in carpentry. 

" Undoubtedly there is no school question more prominently be- 
fore the community at the present time than that of making manual 
training a branch of instruction in the common schools; and in 
Cambridge this question has assumed special importance since Mr. 
Frederick H. Rindge made to the city his generous offer of an 
industrial school building ready for use, together with a site for the 
same. 

'' The object and aim of the school as proposed by him are best made 
known in his own words. He says : ' I wish the plain arts of industry 
to be taught in this school. I wish the school to be especially for boys 
of average talents, who may in it learn how their arms and hands can 
earn food, clothing and shelter for themselves; how, after a while, 
they can support a family and a home; and how the price of these 
blessings is faithful industry, no bad habits, and wise economy, which 
price, by the way, is not dear I wish also that in it they may be- 
come accustomed to being under authority, and be now and then in- 
structed in the laws that govern health and nobility of character. I 
urge that admittance to said school be given only to strong boys who 
will grow up to be able workingmen. 

" Strict obedience to such a rule would tend to make parents care- 
ful in the training of their young, as they would know that their boys 
would be deprived of the benefit of said school unless they were able- 
bodied. I think the industrial school would thus graduate many 
young men who would prove themselves useful citizens.' 

"It becomes the duty and privilege of the school committee to co 
operate in carrying out his plans so far as ihe industrial school is to be 
brought into connection with the public school system. For this pur- 
pose the committee has sought information in regard to the oganiza- 
tion and work of the industrial schools of our country, and more es- 
pecially in regard to the work of manual training as connected with 
the public schools." 

4. Springfield Manual Training School. 

"The experience of Springfield is a fairly typical one, and it will be 
found to give an answer to the many questions which are continually 
asked, such as, how much will a wood-working department cost? 



Industrial Education Commission. 143 

what pupils should attend ? and, will it interfere with the children's 
other studies ? 

" It has been and will continue to be the aim of the committee to 
bring the course of study in the schools into harmony with the be&t 
and most practical educational methods known in order that the 
analytical, reasoning and constructive powers of the scholars may be 
developed, that they may become familiar with practical things, and 
leave school, when circumstances compel them to join the great army 
of workers, equipped with knowledge, so far as it goes, that will be 
useful to them in whatever honest occupation they may follow. As 
nearly ninety-five per cent, of the scholars who go out from the 
schools will from necessity become engaged in some kind of manual 
labor, it is important that manual training should have an established 
place in our school system, not for the exclusive benefit of those who 
are destined to lives of toil, but also for those who may be called to 
enter the learned professions. It has been truly said that 'manual 
training is essential to the right and full development of the human 
mind ; ' therefore, the young man or woman who encounters the world 
with only the mind trained is not fully equipped to commence either 
a mechanical, scientific, business or professional career. Impressed 
with the importance of these truths, the committee has taken steps 
in a modest way to introduce into the schools manual in connection 
with mental training. 

*'To establish a school for manual training required a special appro- 
priation from the city government, as the public statutes do not allow 
industrial schools to be maintained from money appropriated for gen- 
eral school expenses. The committee considered it their duty to 
make a beginning in this direction, and on March 1st petitioned the 
city government to appropriate one thousand dollars to equip an ex- 
perimental industrial school and employ a competent teacher to con- 
duct it. The appropriation was promptly made, the basement of the 
high school building was selected as the most suitable place at the 
command of the committee, and an instructor was engaged. Attend- 
ance at the manual training school could not, under the law, be made 
compulsory, and volunteers were called for from the freshman class 
of the high school, and the eighth and ninth grades of the grammar 
schools; that the boys should not be less than thirteen years of age 
was the only condition of admission. 

" Eighty-four bovs manifested their desire to be enrolled for the 
term beginning in September, and eighteen of them expressing a wish 
to receive instruction during a summer vacation, were formed into 
two classes, and three lessons a week for four weeks were arranged. 
Thirteen benches designed for wood working were obtained and 
equipped with suitable tools for the class of work to be taught; three 
large cupboards, each containing thirty-two compartments, were pro- 
vided for the convenience of the pupils. The school opened on July 



144 Keport of the 

12th with the two vacation classes, which by this time had received 
recruits, increasing the number to twenty-two scholars. The fall term 
opened with an enrolment of ninety-one scholars, which number soon 
increased to ninety six, and these were divided into eight classes of 
twelve scholars each. It was arranged that each class should receive 
one lesson a week of one and one-half hours' duration, and the in- 
structor was employed to devote three days a week to the school, as 
the amount of the appropriation did not warrant the committee in 
engaging his full services. The course of instruction arranged con- 
sisted of fifteen lessons, divided into forty-five problems, covering 
the use of the hammer, nail driving, measurement, use of the try- 
square, gauging, sawing to line, cutting to length, cutting to width, 
shelf making, box making, use of dividers, boring, use of brad awl, 
use of chisel, examples in construction, and the general use of car- 
penter's tools, their parts described and defined, their adjustment ex- 
plained, and the pupils taught to keep them in working order. On 
November 9th an additional class was organized for Saturday after- 
noons, consisting of twelve scholars from private schools. 

''The Saturday morning class has among its members four of the 
grammar school principals and the drawing teacher. This fact is 
mentioned to show the interest manifested in manual training by 
many of our most accomplished instructors. 

"• The cost of the experimental training school, from its establish- 
ment to January 1, is as follows : 

Cost of equipment, $503 19 

Cost of material, 60 11 

Salary of instructor, 231 14 

Balance of appropriation not used, 205 56 

Total, $1,000 00 

'• The remainder of the appropriation will carry the school on the 
present plan until March, 1887. 

" In view of the encouraging results of the experiment as far as it 
has been carried, the committee venture to suggest that the incoming 
city government make an appropriation of five thousand dollars, in 
order that the scope of the school may be extended to include wood 
turning and metal working in some of its simpler branches, and that 
full time of the present instructor be secured for the work. 

'* The basement of the high school is not a suitable place for the 
continuance of the experiment, owing to dampness and insufficient 
light ; and a light, dry, well ventilated work-room, with the privilege 
of power, will be required. It is believed that five thousand dollars 
will cover the expenses of the instructor, supply additional tools and 
materials, and pay the rent for room and power. The tools and equip- 
ment now owned by the city, and all that may be bought as suggested, 
will come into play in case the experiment develops into a permanent 



Industrial Education Commission. 145 

part of the school system. It is the testimony of the principals of 
the hio^h school and the grammar schools that the time given to man- 
ual training has not retarded the pupils in their regular studies, 

'' The committee cherish the hope that in the near future the liberal 
citizens of Springfield will provide for the use of the city, under 
proper regulations, suitable buildings in which at least one hundred 
pupils can receive simultaneous mental and manual training. The 
cost of such buildings, exclusive of land, fully equipped with all the 
appliances for instruction in wood and metal working, need not ex- 
ceed forty thousand dollars. Pupils for such a school should not be 
less than thirteen years of age, selected for merit after passing grade 
eight in the grammar schools, or with the same requirements if taken 
from parochial or private schools. They should be given a three years' 
course in manual training in connection with regular studies, consist- 
ing of mathematics, drawing, the sciences, and the English branches 
of the high school course. The manual training department should 
include instruction in carpentry, patternmaking, wood- turning, fil- 
ing, forging, brazing, soldering and the use of machine shop tools. The 
time of the pupils should be equally divided between mental and 
manual exercises. It is a remarkable fact, established by experience 
in manual training schools, that scholars who devote half of their 
study hours to manual exercises make equal progress in mental work 
with those who give all their study hours to it. The cost of maintain- 
ing a school of this general character would not greatly exceed the 
cost of high school instruction, which m this city was thirty-six dol- 
lars per capita for the year 1886. Fifty dollars per capita ought to 
pay the expenses of maintaining a manual training school of one 
hundred pupils. 

" The object in establishing such a school is not to train appren- 
tices and teach trades, but to drill pupils in the fundamental mechan- 
ical principles that are the basis of all trades, and '' to foster a higher 
appreciation of the value and dignity of intelligent labor, and the 
worth and respectability of laboring men. Its graduates will be- 
come intelligent workingmen, producers of wealth, developers of the 
inexhaustible resources of our country, and the promoters and de- 
fenders of that peculiarly American civilization which is destined, in 
God's providence, to lead the world in every art and industry." 

The course of study and shop- work is as follows : 
Senior Grammar School Year. 

Elementary course in the use of wood-working tools. Tools described and adjust- 
ment of parts explained. Rules ol mechanics. 

First High School. Year. 

Fall Term. 

Academic Studies — Algebra ; Pliysiology, followed by Physics ; English Language. 

Shop Work — Joint Making, Sand-papering, Staining and Varnishing, Gr nding and 

Honing Tools, Lectures on Grain of Wood. 
Drawing — Shop Drawings, Principles of Projection, Use of Instruments. 

10 Ed. Com. 



146 Keport of the 

Winter Term. 
Academic Studies. — Algebra, Physics, English Language. 
jShop Work. — Wood-Turning, Scraping, Polishing ; Tjectures on Kinds of Wood and 

their Uses. 
Drawing. — Shop Drawings, Pen Lining, Lettering, Simple Objects Measured and 
Drawn to Scale, Perspective Drawing from Models and Objects. 
/Spring Term. 
Academic Studies. — Algebra, Physics, English Language. 
Shop Work. — Carving, Saw-Filing. 

Drawing. — Shop Drawings ; Instrumental Drawings of Details and the Whole of 
Simple Machines from Figured Free-hand Sketches ; Outdoor Sketch- 
ing. 

Second High School Year. 

T'all Term. 

Academic Studies. — Geometry, General History, Zoology, fourteen weeks, followed 

by Physical Geography. 
Shop Work. — Forging, Welding, Tempering. 

Drawing. — Shop drawing, Geometric Problems, Orthographic Projection, Perspec- 
tive Drawing, Study of Light and Shade. 
Winter Term. 
Academic Studies. — Geometry, General History, Physical Geography, twelve weeks, 

followed by Botany. 
Shop Work. — Soldering, Brazing, Pattern Making, Lectures on kinds of metal and 

their Uses. 
Drawing. — Pattern Drawing, Isometric Projections, Flat Tinting, Architectural 
Drawing, Historic Ornament. 

Spring Term. 
Academic Studies. — Civil Government, Elementary Chemistry, Botany. 
Shop Work. — Pattern Making, Moulding, Casting. 

Drawing. — Pattern Drawing, Architectural Drawing, Outdoor Sketching, Architec- 
tural Details. 

Thi^id High School Year. 

Fall Term. 

Academic Studies. — Rhetoric and English Literature, Higher Algebra, Chemistry, 

French or German. 
Shop Work — Chipping and Filing Metals. 
Drawing. — Line and Brush Shading, Pen and Ink Sketching, Shop Drawings. 

Winter Term. 
Academic Studies. — Rhetoric and English Literature, Algebra completed. Higher 

Geometry begun. Arithmetic reviewed, French or German. 
Shop Work. — Turning, Planing and Drilling Metals ; Study of Machinery. 
Drawing. — Commence Finished Drawings of Structure or Working Machine, with 
Full Details. 

Spring Term. 
Academic Studies. — American and English Literature, Higher Geometry, Geology, 

French or German. 
Shop Work. — Machine Construction. 
Drawing. — Complete Drawings of Winter Term. , 

5. "Worcester Polytechnic Institute. 
The Worcester County Free Institute of Industrial Science was 
founded by John Boynton, Esq., of Templeton, in 1865, and its scope 
and purpose are set forth in the following extract from his letter of 
gift, dated May 1, 1865 : 



Industrial Education Commission. 147 

" Being desirous to devote a portion of the property which, in the 
good providence of God, has fallen to my lot for the promotion of the 
welfare and happiness of my fellowmen, I have determined to set 
apart, and do hereby set apart and give the sum of one hundred 
thousand dollars, for the endowment and perpetual support of a 
free school or institute, to be established in the county of Worcester, 
for the benefit of the youth of that county. 

" The aim of this school shall ever be the instruction of youth in 
those branches of education not usually taught in the public schools 
which are essential and best adapted to train the young for practical 
life ; and especially that such as are intending to be mechanics or 
manufactures, or farmers, may attain an understanding of the princi- 
ples of science applicable to their pursuits, which will qualify them in 
the best manner for an intelligent and successful prosecution of their 
business ; and that such as intend to devote themselves to any of the 
branches of mercantile business, shall in like manner be instructed in 
those parts of learning most serviceable to them ; and that such as 
design to become teachers of common schools, or schools of a like 
character as our common schools, may be in the best manner fitted 
for their calling ; and the various schemes of study and courses of 
instruction shall always be in accordance with this fundemental design, 
so as thereby to meet a want which our public schools have hitherto 
but inadequately supplied. " 

This general aim has been steadily kept in view, and others, chiefly 
residents of the city and county, without whose cooperation the early 
purpose of the school could not have been realized, have generously 
supplemented the original gift, and have enabled the school more 
perfectly to fulfil the intent of its founder. 

In 1887, the name was changed to the Worcester Polytechnic In- 
stitute. 

It is authorized to hold property to the amount of $1,000,000. 

The institute ofi'ers a good education — based on the mathematics, 
living language, physical sciences and drawings — and sufficient prac- 
tical familiarity with some branch of applied science, to secure to its 
graduates a livelihood. It is specially designed to meet the wants of 
those who wish to be prepared as mechanics, civil engineers, chemists, 
or designers, for the duties of their respective profession. 

The plan of organization is in the main that of the polytechnic 
schools of Europe, but with such modifications as are rendered neces- 
sary by difi'ering conditions. Special prominence, however, is given 
to the element of practice which is required in every department. 

In favor of this feature of the training adopted at the institute, there 
may be assigned the following reasons : 

1. The fact that some of the most successful and sagacious manu- 
factures and business men, as well as many able educators, continu- 
ally recur to the idea of combining manual labor with school instruc- 



148 Repokt op the 

tion, shows the increamg demand for a closer union of theory and 
practice in technological training. 

2. Those who are actively engaged in the practice of engineering, 
are generally agreed that every young man training for an engineer 
should acquire familiarity with the practical side of his profession. 
The acquirement of the manual dexterity, conceded by all to be de- 
sirable, may procede, accompany, or follow the technological train- 
ing. In this school it accompanies that training. 

3. Most of the young men who have graduated from the institute 
have readily found employment in situations for which their technical 
education particularly prepared them, and have proved themselves 
well fitted for their work. 

But while practice is made thus prominent, it is insisted that it 
should spring from a clear comprehension of principles. Practice is 
not an end, but a means and help to the best instruction. With this 
view of its relation to theoretical work in the school training, the 
student's entrance on the pursuit he has chosen becomes an expan- 
sion of his coarse of study, rather than an abrupt transition to a new 
sphere of life. 

In acquiring knowledge of any form of handicraft, or of the prac- 
tical industries by which society is supported and carried on, it is es- 
sential that the student should practice under conditions as like as 
possible to those which he will meet in life. The more his work is 
subjected to the inexorable tests of trade, and the more he feels the 
same responsiblity that is inevitable in actual business, the better. 

For the acquisition of practical familiarty with different branches 
of applied science, the same facilities are offered as in the best schools 
of technology elsewhere — in mechanical engineering, shop practice is 
added to the course and incorporated in it. 

Practice, in the school, is subject to three conditions: First, it 
shall be a necessary part of each week's work; secondly, it shall be 
judiciously distributed and constantly supervised; and thirdly, the 
students shall not expect or receive any immediate pecuniary return 

for it. 

At the middle of the first year every student who has not already 
done so (under the advice of the instructors) chooses some department 
and until his graduation, devotes ten hours a week and an additiona[ 
month each year, to practice in that department. Sudents who se- 
lect chemistry work in the chemical laboratory; the civil engineers 
at field work or problems in construction ; those who select drawing 
in the drawing room; and those who take physics in the physical 
laboratory. The mechanical engineers practice in the machine shop 
from the beginning of the apprentice half year and their practice ex- 
tends over the whole course of three and a half years. 

The charge for tuition is one hundred and fifty dollars per year, and 
is free to students who at the time of admission to the institute are 



Industrial Education Commission. 149 

residents of Worcester county. Twenty students selected by the 
Board of Education, and who are residents of Massachusetts, but not 
of Worcester county, may also receive free tuition. 

All students are charged an average of eight dollars per year — or 
three to five dollars per half-year — for use of chemicals and apparatus 
in the laboratories, and extra for breakage. Students of junior and 
middle classes who practice in the chemical laboratory are charged 
thirty dollars per year, and members of the senior class forty dollars 
per year, exclusive of breakage. 

Candidates for admission to the junior class should have attained 
the age of sixteen years, and must give evidence of proficiency in the 
common English branches, viz : History of the United States, geog- 
raphy, grammar and arithmetic — in French, plane geometry, and 
algebra as far as quadratic equations. In general, students at the end 
of the third year in the high school are prepared for the studies of the 
institute, though a full high school course is desirable. 

Students can enter an advanced class at any time, but only after 
satisfactory examination in the studies already pursued by that class. 

An apprentice class is received at the beginning of the second half- 
year on the following conditions: 

1. Each applicant shall pass the requisite examination for admission 
to the institute, as stated above. 

2. The class will spend thirty-nine hours a week in the shop, six in 
free-hand drawing and five in recitation, till July 1. The shop work 
will be in the wood room. 

3. In August, following their admission, the members of this class 
who pass the examination in June will join the regular junior class, 
and proceed with the course of studj^ as it is laid down in the cata- 
logue. 

4. Any student is liable to be dismissed from this class who does 
not, during the preparatory half-year, evince a decided aptness for 
mechanics. 

All beginners in mechanics must enter the apprentice class. 

The capacity of the wood room limits the number in this class to 
thirty two. 

The training of students preparing for mechanical engineers occu- 
pies three and one- half years ; that of all others three years of forty - 
two weeks each. There are, therefore, four classes, viz : Apprentice, 
Junior, Middle and Senior. Every student must belong to one of 
these classes, the capacity of the institute not permitting admission to 
special or partial courses. 

Certain studies are common to all departments, for it is the aim 
of the school to give as complete a general education as possible, as 
well as to point out the true relation of theory and practice. 

Instruction is given by recitations, lectures and practice, which to- 
gether constitute a symmetrical course of study. The course closes 



150 Eeport of the 

with the preparation, by each student, of a thesis or report. Members 
of the apprentice class, who appear in the junior class, are excused 
from free hand drawing for the first half-year, and during senior year 
the courses for the different departments vary, but otherwise all 
students attend the recitations and lectures appointed for their re- 
spective classes. But the exercises in practice are widely different. 

Lectures are given by all the professors on topics suggested by their 
work, as occasion may demand, and in some departments this form of 
instruction is, of necessity, chiefly employed. Students are, in all 
cases, required to take notes and to sustain examination on the lec- 
tures. 

Courses of study and practice are offered in : 

1. Mechanical engineering, 

2. Civil engineering. 

3. Chemistry. . 

4. Drawing. 

5. Physics. 

At the middle of the junior year, each student except those in the 
course of mechanical engineering, chooses a department under the 
advice of the instructors, and from this time to the end of the course 
devotes to it his practice time. 

Mechanical practice begins in the January preceding the junior 
year, according to the plan for the apprentice class. Practice in all 
departments continues to the end of the course. 

Thesis. — Each student before graduating is required to prepare and 
submit to the faculty a satisfactory report of thesis on some subject 
connected with his special department. 

Kecitation and practice are assigned to the classes according to the 
following scheme, the figures indicating the hours per week : 

First Half Year. 

>S'etitors.— Theoretical Mechanics or Organic Chemistry, 5. English, 5. Chemistrj', 
2. Physics, 4. Mechanical Drawing, 6. Practice, 10. 

Middlers. — Analytical Geometry, 4. Descriptive (reometry, 3. Physics, 1. Ger- 
man, 4. Chemistry, 2. Free Drawing, 2. Mechanical Drawing, 6. Practice, 10. 

Juniors. — Algebra, 3. Geometry, 3. German, 4. Chemistry, 2. Physics, 2. Free 
Drawing, 6. 

Second Half Year. 

xS'eriiors.— Applied Mechanics or Organic Chemisty, 5. English, 5. Thermo-dy- 
namics or Gas Analysis, 2. Geology, 1. Mechanical Drawing, 6. Practice, 10. 

ikfiddZers.— Calculus, 6. German, 4. Physics, 3. Free Drawing, 2. Mechanical 
Drawing, 6. Chemistry, 3. Practice, 10. 

J"M7itor.s.— Trigonometry, 2. Algebra, 1. Analytical Geometry, 1. German, 4. 
Solid Geometry, 2. Chemistry, 4. Physics, 2|. Free Drawing, 6, Practice, 10. 

Apprentices.— English or French, 5. Free Drawing, 6. Practice, 39. 

Great importance is attached to the study of language for its intrinsic 
worth and the auxiliary advantage it gives in the pursuit of all other 



^ Industrial Edvcation Commission. 151 

branches. Throusjhout the course careful attention is given to the 
structure of language, as well as to its obvious concrete forms. 

All students pursue the study of German two years. 

In connection with the recitations in German, and in all exercises 
special care is bestowed upon the study of the English language, and 
constant practice in writing it is insisted upon. 

In senior year, by means of lectures by the professor, and debates, 
oral reports, readings, essays, etc., by the students, an attempt is made 
to cultivate a critical taste for literature and some familiarity with 
the best models, so as to lay a foundation for a good style oi English 
composition. Also, the principles of civil government and political 
economy are made sujects of study during a part of this year. 

All students are taught free-hand drawing. This embraces care- 
fully planned exercises in outline drawing, shading and coloring from 
models and casts, special attention being given to drawing from work- 
ing models, and to sketching directly from nature. This course is of 
great value in all departments of applied science. 

In the mechanical drawing room instruction is given in the use of 
instruments, shading and coloring, plane and isometic projections, 
and theory of shades, shadows and perspective ; also, in making de- 
tailed and finished working drawings of machines from specific data, 
including the drawings used in the construction of the machine or 
motor built in the Washburn machine shop by the senior class. All 
drawing is done under the eye of the instructor. 

Students who evince marked aptitude for drawing are admitted to 
practice in this department. 

A course of lessons is devised for each student in practice, prepara- 
tory to designing for textile fabrics, lithographing, etc. Students en- 
joy access to collections of illustrations and examples. Students who 
practice in drawing join the civil engineers in the study of stereotomy. 

The course in drawing is the best preparation for the business of a 
designer, whether for prints, fresco and ornamental painting, or any 
other similar art. 

The course in mechanical engineering includes instruction in theo- 
retical and applied mechanics, thermo- dynamics and practice. 

In theoretical mechanics, the principles of statics and dynamics are 
taught and illustrated in the solution of a wide range of problems, in- 
cluding in statics the combination of the simple mechanical powers, 
the determination of center of gravity of surfaces and solids, the ef- 
fect of friction, the pressure of liquids, and center of pressure of im- 
mersed surfaces ; and in dynamics, relations of time, space and velocity 
in uniformly accelerated motion, the altitude, range and time of flight 
of projectiles, the impact or collision of bodies, the constrained motion 
of bodies, including the pendulum, the moment of inertia of surfaces 
and solids, the motion of liquids, etc. 

In ai)plied mechanics, problems are solved relating to the strength 



152 Eeport of the 

and deflection of beams, pillars and girders; the bursting strength of 
boilers, pipes, and thick hollow cylinders, the torsional strength of 
axles and shafts, the construction of gears, the designing ot link and 
valve motion for the locomotives, the energy and work of moving 
bodies, the work of steam in the steam cylinder, the tractive power of 
the locomotive, the transformation of ener^iy, and many Other prob- 
lems relating to the construction of hydraulic and steam motors and 
machinery. 

Those who desire to begin the course in mechanical engineering 
must enter the apprentice class. A limited number, however, may be 
admitted to this department provided they have had at least one 
year of actual work in wood or iron in some approved shop. In 
each case a certificate from the proprietor or foreman of the shop is 
required, setting forth the amount and kind of work which the appren- 
tice has done. 

Practiced. 

Two principles are observed in the arrangement of the practice in 
this department : First, that whiie labor with hand tools and machines 
should be wisely blended, yet. since machinery has a consiantly in- 
creasing share in the conversion of material into useful forms, the 
educated mechanic should know how to design, construct, and assem- 
ble the parts of a machine, as well as how to make its product; and, 
second, that excellence in construction is to be sought as a most valu- 
able factor in instruction. 

The power of the engineer to decide upon general grounds the bevst 
form and material for a machine, and to calculate its parts, is vastly 
increased by blending with it the skill of the craftsman in manipulat- 
ing the material, and the fact that the product is to be tested and used, 
kiu'lles interest in its manufacture and furnishes additional incentive 
to thoroughness and exactness. After the earliest lessons, the prac- 
tice is on commercial goods, and follows the best methods of commer- 
cial production. 

For this work unusual facilities are offered at the Washburn shops 
of the Polytechnic Institute. These shops were founded by the late 
Hon. Ichabod Washburn, of Worcester, and his purpose concerning, 
them is expressed in the following extract from his letter of gift, dated 
March 6, 1867 : 

"There shall be a machine shop of sufficient capacity to employ twentj^ or more 
apprentices, with a suitable number of practical teachers and workmen in the shop 
to instruct such apprentices, and provided with all necessarj^ steam power, engines, 
tools, apparatus, and machinery of the most improved models and styles in use, to 
carry on the business of such machine shop in all its parts as a practical working es- 
tablishment. There shall be a superintendent of such shop, who shall be appointed 
and subject to be removed by the trustees, who shall be a man of good morals and 
Christian character, having a good English education, a skilful and experienced 
mechanic, well informed and capable of teaching others in the various parts and pro- 
cesses of practical mechanism usually applied or made use of in the machine shops 



Industrial Education Commission. 153 

of the country, who shall devote his time and attention to the management and busi- 
ness of the shop, purchasing stock, making contracts for the manufacture and sale of 
machines, and other work usually done in machine shops, subject to such rules as 
the trustees may iJrescribe, and having charge of the proper financial concerns of the 
shop, hiring necessary workmen, and discharging the same at his discretion, and 
shall see that the apprentices are suitably taught in all the departments of practical 
mechanism, working of woods and metals, and use of tools, so as to make them, so 
far as it may be, skilled workmen, and fitted to carry on business for themselves 
after tliey leave the shop, at the expiration of their apprenticeship. 

" He shali, moreover, have a care and oversight over the apprentices, such as a 
faithful master would exercise, to the end that they may cultivate habits of industry, 
good conduct, and attention to their studies." 

Recently the capacity of the shop, as originally built by Mr. AVash- 
burn, has been nearly doubled by the gift of $13,600 from David 
Whitcomb, Esq., and Hon. Stephen Salisbury. The shop buildings, 
as now enlarged consist of a three-story central structure one hundred 
feet long by forty feet wide; having two extensions each thirty-five 
by forty feet, two stories high, and a two story L., seventy-live by 
twenty-six feet. 

The building contains engine room, engine and boilers; blacksmith 
shop, tool room, draughting room, painting and finishing room, and 
large work rooms for both wood and metals, fully equipped with tools 
and machinery. Here the students in mechanical engineering spend 
their practice hours as apprentices, and it is found that the graduates 
in this department are as skilful mechanics as ordinary apprentices 
who have served three years in a shop, and they have in addition the 
advantages of a solid education. This result is attained uiider the 
following conditions: 

1. These shops are organized and managed as a manufacturing 
establishment, and a great variety of work is always in process of con- 
struction in order that the students may constantly have the whole- 
some atmosphere of real business. This, with a determination on the 
part of the superintendent to maintain a high standard ot workman- 
ship, has made the progress of the students in the best methods of 
construction both rapid and thorough, and has proved the most 
efi'ective means of giving them an exact knowledge of shop practice. 

The jurors at the Centennial Exposition decreed an award to the 
shop for its tools for working metals which were exhibited in Machin- 
ery Hall, and first premiums have been awarded wherever these tools 
have been exhibited. 

2. The work of each student is done under the personal supervision 
and direction of a skilled workman, and with the advantage of the 
best obtainable tools and machinery; for it is as true in handicraft as 
in the training of the intellect, that the best tools and appliances are 
not too good for instruction. 

3. Every student receives training in drawing during the entire 
course. In this way exact knowledge of form and proportion is se- 
cured, and the students make more intelligent and satisfactory 



154 Report of the 

progress in the shop, than is possible for those who have not had the 
advantag;e of this training. Beside the general training in free-hand 
and instrumental drawing, students in this department have practice 
during senior year in making working-drawings of machines, and in 
determining the strength, dimensions, and proper proportions of 
machines from numerical specifications. 

4. The weekly practice is distributed so as to occupy five hours of 
each of two days. Each student is required to render a strict account 
of these hours. The time thus spent serves the double purpose of 
practice and of exercise. 

5. Each student advances as fast as possible, unchecked by the dif- 
ficulties of his neighbor, or any business necessity of the shop. 

To these advantages, viz., the service of construction in the work of 
instruction, the discipline and culture of free-hand drawing, careful 
distribution of time, and relief from all unnecessary detail, should be 
added the consideration which far outweighs them all, that students 
come to their work with the perceptive faculties, the reason, the judg- 
ment and the taste all under constant and careful training in school. 
Theory and practice accompany and supplement each other. Under 
these conditions, it is clear that the students must during their prac- 
tice have direction and efiicient instruction. To provide for this, Hon- 
Ichabod Washburn also gave a fund of $50,000, the income of which 
may be applied towards paying the running expenses of the shop, 
with the expectation that twenty young men would receive its bene- 
fits. With the present facilities, over one hundred are accommodated. 

In general the apprentice class are taught the use of wood-work- 
ing tools and machinery; the junior, middle and senior classes work 
mainly on iron. 

Practice in the machine shop and draughting rooms comprises : 

IN THE WOOD ROOM. 

Bench Work. — This includes a great variety of manipulation, under constan 
instruction in laying out work with the knife and pencil, the use of planes, the 
hand-saws, chisels, gouges, squares, gauges, and other tools. 

Wood Turning. — W^ith the useof the various turning tools, on hard and soft wood. 

Machine Sawing. — With large and small circular saws, and scroll saws. 

Machine Planing. — With the cylinder and Daniels planer, machine boring, the 
use of the shaping and molding machines, and the auxiliary manipulations of all 
the machinery used. 

IN THE IRON ROOM. 

Bench TTorA;.— Filing and chipping, preparing work for lathes, tapping, reaming, 
scraping and fitting plane surfaces, finishing with oil-stone and emery cloth. 

Work with Speed Lathe. — Drilling and countersinking, filing and polishing, hand- 
tooling. 

Work with Engine Lathe. — Instruction in the use and care of lathe and turning 
tools, squaring up, the proper and maximum speed for cutting metals, turning to 
exact size, the use of the calipers, a variety of turning, both heavy and light ; cutting 
threads, squaring up and finishing nuts, chucking straight holes, reaming, inside 
boring, boring with boring-bar, fitting bearings, etc. 



% 

INDUSTRIA.L EDUCATION COMMISSION. 155 

Drilling. — "With speed-lathe, upright and traverse drillers. 

Milling. — Use ol the universal milling machine — milling nuts, bolt heads and 
studs, cutting splines, fluting taps and reamers, milling to size and line, cutting 
gears. 

Planing. — Instruction in the use of the planer, planing surfaces and bevels. 

Work with Screw Machine. — Making machine bolts with revolving head screw 
machine, cutting up stock, making screws and studs, and tapping nuts. 

Tool Making. — The correct forms of turning tools, and the principles of grinding 
them; making taps, dies, reamers, twist-drills, countersinks, counter bores, mills, 
milling-machine cutters, mandrels, boring-bars, chuck- drills, centers. 

Management of Steam. — Care of the boilers and engine, including the work of fir- 
ing; the care and control of the steam pressure and water supply; also the care and 
manipulation of the steam pump and injectors. The practice in the steam depart- 
ment is under the constant oversight of the engineer. 

Designing and Constructing. — In senior year after the students have 
each accomplished the practice just specified, they build one or more 
complete machines from their own drawings. These drawings, though 
made from definite specifications, are intended to afford ample field 
and scope for the personal responsibility and originality of each stu- 
dent, in making correct design and arrangement of the parts of the 
machine m hand. While this work is not copying, it must not de- 
part essentially from the best practice among manufacturing mechan- 
ics. Previous classes have constructed a twenty-five H. P. Corliss en- 
gine, a ten H. P. upright-reversible engine, a forty H. P. Buckeye en- 
gine, a thirty H. P. high speed straight-line engine ; the class of 1885, 
an engine lathe, eighteen feet in length and having twent-six inches 
swing ; the class of 1886, a Hendy shaper, and the class of 1888 will 
complete a No. 1 cabinet turret lathe with seven foot bed, twenty inch 
swing, and with engine feed, back gears, screw apparatus and over- 
head works. 

" While we depend mainly upon real work, with machines and tools 
in the hands of the students to give him practical knowledge and ex- 
perience, we also desire to make the instruction as broad and general 
as possible. 

'^ For this purpose a beginning has been made for a permanent exhibit 
of the best American and foreign tools of all kinds, properly arranged 
and open to the inspection of the students, and used as an illustration 
of the best, so that the student ma^" become familiar with standard 
tools and the names of the makers. 

'' This exhibit of tools and machines is used in lectures and general in- 
struction to classes. 

" The practical value of the work after graduation is indicated from 
the fact that ninety per cent, of the graduates are now working suc- 
cessfully in the professions for which they were trained." 



156 Report of thk 



XII. MINNESOTA. 



1. Minneapolis Public Schools. 



Dr. J. E. Bradley, superintendent of public schools, Minneapolis. 
Minn., forwards the following account of the work in that city, pre- 
pared under date of October 8th, 1888, by Mr. W. F. Decker, superin- 
tendent of manual training : 

*' There are 148 pupils enrolled at the present time at the Central 
high school and at the two branch high schools where the work was 
commenced at the beginning of the present term. At the Central 
school we have benches and tools to accommodate 31 at one time or 
102 during each morning session cf four hours, each pupil working 
during two recitation periods or 50 minutes each day at tlie bench. 

'• So far wood-working and industrial drawing only have been at- 
tempted. Each bench in the wood-working shop is provided with 
saws, hammers, planes, try-squares, T bevels, wing-dividers, gouges, 
chisels, bits and other tools that are in general use in wood working 
trades. These tools all have places on the tool racks and are marked 
to correspond with the number of the bench to prevent their being 
misplaced. Each bench is 14 feet long and provided with two car- 
penter's vises and six drawers with locks. Two pupils work at one 
time at each bench and each one has a drawer for his unfinished work 
which he locks at the close of each exercise. Each pupil is also re- 
quired to leave the tools he has used in their proper places, and dust 
off the bench in order that it may be ready for the next section. 

'' It will be seen that by our system the tools on each bench are 
used in common by the pupils of three sections, but that each papil, 
who has his regular place, uses the same tools each day. 

" Instruction is given in the following way : — The class is assembled 
at the commencement of each exercise and the lesson explained from a 
large working drawing on which are marked all dimensions sufficiently 
plain to be read by members of the class seated before the instructor. 
Each step of the lesson is caretully pointed out and difficult operations 
are performed by the instructor before the class. Questions are an- 
swered concerning the lesson and an effort is made to have each mem- 
ber of the class clearly understand the whole operation before going 
to his place at the bench. After giving a signal for pupils to take 
their places at the benches, the instructor employs the remaining 
time in giving individual instruction at the benches and in inspecting 
the work. The lessons commence with such simple operations as 
sawing, nailing, planing, paring, etc , and include seventeen exercises 
in making simple joints, and during the latter part of the first year 



Industrial Education Commission. 157 

pupils construct such articles as small panel doors, models of door- 
steps, models of roof trusses, cases of drawers, etc. During the second 
year some quite different lessons are given in working hard woods. 
The first year lessons are all in working pine. 

" Experience has shown that too much attention cannot be given to 
the first elementary eperations. If pupils do not get a good drill in 
these all of their work will be bad, and where the proper amount of drill 
is given in the elements, rapid and substantial progress is made. I 
think in many manual training schools sufiicient attention is not given 
to the elements and pupils are allowed to construct things too early 
in the course before they have mastered the use of tools. The same 
rule applies here as in all branches of education — the elements must 
he thoroughly taught first. During the latter part of the course in 
wood, working pupils will work largely from their own drawings. 
Each pupil works half as much time in the industrial drawing room 
as at the be»ch during the couise. 

"Though we have worked but little over one year and commenced 
in a very small way, the work already done has been highly spoken 
of by mechanics and educators, and the pupils generally take great 
interest in the work without losing interest in their other studies. 

'' The equipment of the branch high schools is precisely the same as 
at the central school, though accommodations are not furnished for so 
large a number." 

In his letter of transmittal Superintendent Bradley adds the follow- 
ing brief statement : 

"The plan has been in successful operation in our central high 
school since January, 1887. This year the work has been extended 
to our branch high schools. Thus far we have confined the exercises 
to wood work but we shall soon be ready to take up metal work, and 
expect to have a course extending over the four years' course. We 
are just now introducing sewing into the fourth grade year in all our 
schools and hope in due time to extend it to the grades above and 
below. We are also doing considerable in the way of modeling and 
kindergarten work. 

" We have few precedents to guide us and my aim has been to in- 
corporate the training of the hand and the eye into our regular school 
work by gradual introduction and natural growth rather than by vio- 
lent re-adjustments. We are doing a good deal of good work in vari- 
ous departments of drawing." 

2. The University of MinDesota. 

The University of Minnesota is one of the institutions founded in 
accordance with the act of Congress of July 2, 1862. 

The college of mechanic arts in the university embraces four regu- 
lar courses of study, viz : civil engineering, mechanical engineering, 
electrical engineering and architecture. 



158 



Report of the 



The aim of the instruction gi\ren in. the regular undergraduate 
courses of this college is to lay a broad and solid foundation in math- 
ematics, mechanics, electricity and drawing, so that with the practice 
in field, shop, office and laboratory work given to the students in the 
respective courses they shall be fitted for immediate usefulness upon 
graduation, and after a moderate amount of subsequent practice and 
experience, be capable of taking charge of important work. 

Admission. 

The courses of this college are open, free of all charges for instruc- 
tion, to all persons over fourteen years of age, whether residents of 
the State or not, who may pass the required examinations. Appli- 
cants will not, however, be admitted to the preparatory class (sub- 
freshmen) provided they can get instruction in the subjects taught in 
this class in the school district in which they live. 

Applicants for admission to the sub-freshman class will be exam- 
ined in the following studies : Latin grammar, English grammar, 
English composition, arithmetic, elementary algebra, history of 
Greece and Rome, history of the United States, physiology. Those 
who do not intend to pursue Latin will be examined in Caesar and 
Cicero, or. in lien thereof : physical geography, history of England. 

Applicants for admission to the freshman class will be further ex- 
amined in the work of the sub-freshman year, in the course chosen. 
The mechanical engineering course in detail is as follows : 

Sub-Fkeshman Year. ' 



First Term. 



Botany [2]. 
Chemistry [3]. 
Higher Algebra [2. ] 
Drawing, Mechanical [3], 6 

hours. 
English, or German, or 

Latin. 



Second Term. 



Drawing,Free-hand, 6hrs; 

Mechanical, 4 hours. 
Plane Geometry [5]. 
English, or German or 

Latin. 



Third Term. 



Chemistry [2]. 
Botany [3]. 
Solid Geometry [5]. 
English, or German, 
Latin. 



Freshman Year. 



First Term. 



Drawing, 10 hours [5]. 
Higher Algebra. 
English, or German, or 
Latin. 



Second Term. 



Chemistry [5]. 

Logarithms and Trigo- 
nometry. 

English, or German, or 
Latin [5]. 



Third Term, 



Drawing, Perspective [5] 

10 hours. 
Botany [5]. 
English [5]. 
Surveying [2j. 



Industrial Education Commission. 
Sophomore Year. 



159 



First Term. 



Analytical Geometry [4]. 

Physics [4]. 

English, or French, or 

Latin [4]. 
Carpentry [5]. 



Second Term. 



Differential Calculus [4]. 
Physics [4]. 
English or French [4]. 
Pattern Work [5]. 



Third Ti!.rm. 



Integral Calculus [4]. 

Elements of Mechanism 
[4]. 

English, or French, or 
Latin [4]. 

Foundry Work and Draw- 
ing [5]. 



Junior Year. 



First Term. 



Kinematics [5]. 
Descriptive Geometry [5]. 
Any Junior first term elec- 
tive [4]. 
Forge Work [5]. 



Second Term. 



Mechanics [5]. 
Hydraulics, etc. [5]. 
Mineralogy [4]. 
Vise and Machine Work 
[5]. 



Third Term. 



Mechanics [5]. 
Testing Materials [5]. 
Any Junior third term 

elective [4J. 
Machine Work [5]. 



Senior Year. 



First Term. 



Applied Descriptive Geom- 
etry [5]. 
Geology oi Astronomy [4]. 
Machinery [5]. 
Machine Details [5]. 



Second Term. 



Steam Engines and Mo- 
tors [5]. 

Experimental Mechanics 
[5]. 

Any Senior second term 
elective [4]. 

Steam Engine Details [5]. 



Third Term, 



Designs, Specifications, 
etc. [5]. 

Machine Tools and The- 
sis [5]. 

Any Senior third term 
elective [4]. 

Drawing on Designs [5]. 



In this course shop-practice and work in experimental mechanics 
take the place of the field work in the civil engineering course. The 
shop work covers two years- time, and it is the intention to give the 
student such a drill as shall enable him to design machinery with a 
view to simplicity of construction, and to superintend its construction. 

In the testing laboratory the same drill in testing materials is given 
as to the civil engineering students, while in addition, accurate and 
complete tests of belting, cutting power of tools, lubricants, engines, 
boilders, pumps, etc., are made, thus preparing the student for expert 
work as well as impressing by actual experiment the principles of the 
text-books. Carefully kept records are required in every case and 
tha results of each experiment are worked up in the most approved 
manner. 

In the class room after the drill in mechanics and the strength of 
materials referred to, courses are given in hydraulics, machine design, 
the steam engines, and other motors, beside courses previously given 
in mechanism and kinematics. 



160 Report of the 

In the drawing-rooms working and finished drawings are made of 
various machines as well as tracings and blue prints of the same, care 
being taken to follow as far as possible the methods of the best ma- 
chine shops. 

During the last term of the course original designs and specifications 
of machinery, engines, boilers, etc., are made and a thesis prepared, 
which, with the necessary drawings, is a condition of graduation. 

In all the regular courses in this college, instruction is given by 
means of text books, lectures, reading in the library, practical prob- 
lems, and a large amount of work in the drawing rooms, laboratoiies, 
shops and in*the field. It is the aim to lay a solid foundation of prin- 
ciples, which, with the large amount of practical work we are able to 
give, will fit the graduate for immediate usefulness among engineers. 
In all the work the strictest accuracy is insisted upon. 

The equipment of this department comprises : 

The engine and boiler room, 20x24 feet, is provided with an auto- 
matic cut-ofi" engine, of modern type, capable of developing thirty- 
five horse power. A steel boiler of ample size furnished with a feed 
pump and heater supplies steam. A dynamometer, friction brake, 
calorimeter, pyrometer, revolution counter, tanks, steam-engine indi- 
cators, gauges, thermometers, and other instruments required for com- 
plete steam-engine and boiler tests, are provided for the use of 
students in experimental work. 

In this room is also a hundred-light Edison dynamo, with ampere- 
meter, regulator and pressure indicator. 

The Michine Shop. — The machine and vise shop, 25x50 feet, con- 
tains one speed lathe, ten engine lathes of various sizes, a planer, 
shaper, universal milling machine, vertical drill press, emery tool 
grinder, grinding attachment to lathe, benches with ten vises, surface 
plates, a set of Betts' standard gauges, taps, dies, reamers, drills, 
chucks and other hand tools and accessories for practice in machine, 
tool and vise work. 

The Wood-Workmg Shop. — The shop for patternmaking and gen- 
eral wood work, 24x48 feet, contains benches wiih ten vises, ten lathes, 
ten sets of hand and lathe tools, two circular saws, a jig saw, band 
saw, planer, boring machine, grindstone and other tools for use in the 
courses of carpentry and patternmaking. 

The Forge Shop. — The forge shop, thirty-one feet square, is provided 
with a portable hand forge, ten stationary forges with anvils and sets 
of tools, a blower, exhaust fan, hand drill press, drills, taps, dies, 
sledges, swages, a grindstone and the other tools generally used in 
biacksmithing. 

The Foundry. — The foundry, 20x30 feet, contains an 18-inch cupola, 
brass furnace, core oven, cinder mill, molding tools and benches, 
core plates, arbors, sweeps, ladles, crucibles, and all of the tools and 



Industrial Education Commission. 161 

material ordinarily needed in molding and casting iron, brass or 
white metal. 

There is also a room, 24x46 feet, fitted up for a testing laboratory. 
It is supplied with power, and contains a 50,000 pounds testing ma- 
chine, which can be adapted for compressive, tensile, transverse, tor- 
sion and shearing tests. Other pieces of apparatus have been designed 
by the department to be used in connection with the testing machine in 
making tests of full -sized beams, up to twenty-five feet in length. An 
instrument purchased for use in connection with tensile tests, is capa- 
ble of actually measuring extension to one ten-thousandth of an inch. 
There is also a cement tester, a dynamometer for measuring trans- 
mitted power, an oil testing machine, standard scales, and other appa- 
ratus for mechanical tests. There is now under construction in the 
machine shops, a dynamometer for determining the power of lathe 
tools, and a ten-horse power steam engine which will be used for ex- 
perimental purposes. 

Each shop will accommodate ten students at a time, which is as 
large a number as can be advantageously instructed together. The 
capacity of the shops can be increased to meet any probable require- 
ments by forming additional classes. 

The instruction given is based on the " Russian System,*' in which 
the leading idea is to teach principles rather than to produce objects 
of commercial value. It is believed that the greatest progress can be 
made in a given time with this method, as the student proceeds, by a 
carefully-planned series of exercises, from the simplest to the most 
difficult operations, learning the processes but avoiding the repeti- 
tion of the ordinary shop. So far as is consistent with this system, the 
work is adapted to parts of some machine or structure in common use. 
and, after finishing the exercises referred to above, the class will build 
some complete machine or structure, as a review and application of 
the preceding work. 

Besides the four regular courses mentioned above, the work of this 
school is classified as follows : 

A. A two years' course in shop work, drawing and mathematics, 
for young men who wish to fit themselves for positions of trust in 
shops and factories. 

£. A one year's course in the care and management of engines and 
boilers, intended as a preparation for the examination of the State 
inspectors. 

C. A course in shop work and drawing for those whose time or lack 
of fitness prevents them from entering division A. 

D. A course in industrial drawing alone for those who wish to devote 
their whole time to this work. 



11 Ed. Com. 



162 



Report of the 
A Division — First Year. 



First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Carpentry, 

Drawing. 

Elementary Algebra [3]. 

Free-Hand Drawing [2]. 


Pattermaking. 
Drawing. 
Algebra. 
Geometry. 


Foundry Work. 

Drawing. 

Geometry. 



Second Year. 



First Term. 



Forge Work. 
Trigonometry. 
Drawing (Machine 
tails). 



De- 



Second Term. 



Vise and Machine Work. 
Mechanics. 

Drawing (Machine De- 
tails). 



Third Term. 



Machine Work. 
Mechanism. 
Drawing (Designing.) 



B Division. 



First Term. 



Recitations and Lectures 
on Care of Engines and 
Boilers. 

Drawing. 

Engine Running. 



Second Term. 



Principles of Engines and 

Boilers. 
Vise and Machine Work. 
Engine Running. 



Third Term. 



Indicators and Engine 

Tests. 
Drawing (Engines and 

Boilers.) 
Engine Running. 



Shop Work and Drawing. 



C Division. 



D Division. 



Industrial Drawing. 

Applicants for admission to any of the divisions must be at least 
fifteen years of age, and must pass examination as follows: A and B 
divisions, in arithmetic and writing ; and D divisions, no examina- 
tion required. 

Members of A division who can pass in any of the mathematics or 
other work of the course, and who pass examinations in geography and 
United States history, may be allowed to substitute, for the subjects 
passed, studies from the other courses, under direction of the faculty. 
Members of divisions A and B who satisfactorily complete the 
courses as laid down, may receive certificates of having done so, 
signed by the president of the university and the director of this 
college. 

Members of all divisions are required to deposit $5 with the registrar 
of the university, which will be returned when connection with the 
school ceases, less such charges as may be made for material furnished 
and damage to any university property. Members of divisions A, B 



Industrial Education Commission. 163 

and C are rf quired, each term, to deposit $5 with the director of the 
college, which will be returned at the close of each term less such 
charges as may be made for material used in shop work, which is not 
made into apparatus of value to the college. 

Methods of Instruction. 

" In the courses of the Artisans' Training School the instruction in 
shop work is given by means of carefully prepared exercises. These 
exercises are planned wholly with the object of instructing the student 
in the use of tools, leaving out the idea of construction, except in so 
far as it may not interfere with instruction. The function of this 
school being to teach the use of tools in general, rather than any par- 
ticular trade, much time can be saved by devoting the entire attention 
of both student and instructor to the manipulation of the tools, and 
avoiding the repetition ot the same operation, which necessarily occurs 
when construction is an object rather than an incidental. The prep- 
aration of exercises, in any particular branch of work, consists in first 
carefully analyzing the various operations and reducing them to their 
simplest forms, and then classifying them in such a way as to have 
them succeed each other in the order of their difficulty. Thus, if we 
examine into the work usually done at the vise, we see that the 
greater part of the work done there is made up of various combina- 
tions of the following operations : Filing to straight or curved lines, 
either between two lines or to one line alone, filing to template, fitting, 
free-hand filing, with and without the hand vise, sawing and chipping 
plane and curved surfaces. Starting, then, with these operations to 
be taught, a course is designed which shall take them up, one at a 
time, and apply them to wrought iron, cast iron, and steel. The other 
courses are on the same general plan as that outlined for vise work. 

" The drawing in this school is conducted on the same plan as in the 
engineering courses, the students first using the text book prepared 
for the department, and afterwards varying their work to meet their 
individual requirements." 

'' In mathematics the instruction covers algebra, plane and solid ge- 
ometry, and trigonometry, taught with special reference to the needs 
of this class of students, and giving many applications to practical 
matters, while the instruction in mechanics and mechanism is made 
as clear of higher mathematics as the subjects will allow. 

*' The instruction in the course in the care and management of engines 
and boilers is given by means of practice in the engine room, under 
the immediate direction of the engineer. By means of lectures and 
recitations the reasons for the regulations, as laid down for running, 
are explained, and the principles of the steam engine and of the con- 
struction of boilers is given in a manner not difficult for one of ordi- 
nary intelligence to understand; and finally, instruction and practice 
in the use of indicators, and in the various tests of engines and boil- 



164 Report of the 

ers is given. It is believed that this course will fill a need which has 
long existed, and will help to supply engineers who are competent 
and trustworthy." 

3. St. Paul Public Schools. 

The following extract from the last annual report of the city superintendent gives 
an excellent statement of the considerations which led to the adoption of the system 
in that city, and the spirit of admirable caution in which the whole movement has 
been conducted. 

^'MaHUAL TRAININa." 

'' Manual training in the public schools is attracting to a large de- 
gree the attention of many of the best and most thouojhtful people 
throughout the country. Experiment and discussion have developed 
a strong public sentiment in favor of giving manual training a promi- 
nent place in the plan of public education, but not with the desire of 
displacing much, if anything, of the ordinary subjects of study to give 
it room. The great value of manual training is being rapidly demon- 
strated in some of the largest citif s of the country, notably St. Louis, 
Philadelphia, Boston and New Haven. The advantages claimed to 
result from the combination of mental and manual training, or in- 
struction, seem to have given a new impulse toward the establishment 
of like schools in several cities of the country. 

" The work done in the manual training school established in this 
city at the beginning of the school year, [October, 1887,] was very 
commendable. During the year both sexes were allowed to engage 
in the work of the school. The course included lessons upon the use 
of the splitting and cutting-off saws, the different bench planes; the 
making, testing and use of the miter box; common and blind dove- 
tailing, mortises and tenons, key tenons, etc. 

''One question which meets us on engaging in this work is, how to 
find the time for it ? In some cities the pupils are taken in school 
hours from the regular schools by delegations, and sent to the build- 
ing where this class of education is carried on. Such a plan has seri- 
ous objections, because it must of necessity cause an interruption of 
the regular studies. 

" Such schools are largely experimental. What is needed then it 
seems, is not experiment but the broad reality. These new lessons it 
seems to me, should be given in harmony with some existing course. 
With this end in view, a course of study has been arranged by a com- 
mittee of the boarl of education appointed for that purpose, laying 
out the work for a three years' course. As the benefits of this school 
could be obtained by only those who had entered the high school, it 
was thought wise to include in it those pupils in the eighth grade of 
the district schools who might desire to take the course prescribed, 
instead of continuing in the grammar schools. The course of study 
was accordingly arranged and fitted to pupils of this class and age. 



Industrial Education Commission. 165 

" It seems to me that ne'ther teachers, parents nor pupils should get 
the impression that there is or should be the least rivalry between the 
lessons from text books and those from things. There may be cases 
where the unambitious pupils may think that this course of study 
promises less work and equal improvement and gain. That such will 
not be found to be the case is most certain. Anything like conflict 
between the new school and its methods and the old, must result in 
injury to both. ^ Let each be given a dignified place of its own dur- 
ing the school day, each have its patronage, and the pupils of each 
have a keen relish tor the work as provided, and the success of each. 
I believe, is abundantly assured. 

^' As this school will probably be opened when the addition to the 
high school is completed, the number of those attending the three 
highest classes in the district schools, who desire to attend this school, 
was ascertained through the principals of the different grammar 
schools of the city. Cards were sent to the parents of these pupils, 
and it was found that nearly eighty were returned, giving the sanc- 
tion of the parents to the statement that their sons might enter on 
the course prescribed for this school. 

'• The work of the past year, while not entirely experimental, was 
carried on somewhat for the purpose of ascertaining the feeling in 
the community in regard to the establishment of such a school. 

'' During the past year both sexes were allowed the privileges of the 
school. It was however, deemed advisable to restrict the enrolment 
in the school to boys only, as the plan of work adopted would in the 
main preclude the enrolment of girls in the school. We believe the 
plan adopted by the board of education will do much to aid in remov- 
ing the prejudice which may exist in the minds of some against such 
a department of instruction, since the aim of the school will be, not 
so much to teach trades as to prepare pupils for a greater proficiency 
in trades, should they conclude to become mechanics. To teach boys 
the use of tools, and to instruct them that the eye and the hand may 
work together, is greatly increasing their equipment for the practical 
duties and work of life." 

The early history of the work is freely given in the following report 
of the superintendent of manual training: 

The Beginning. 

About the 1st of last October [1887] a room in the basement of 
the high school building had been fitted up with benches, tools and 
other necessary appliances to accommodate lorty-eight pupils in wood 
work. On canvassing the high school it was found that about twice 
that number wished to avail themselves of the practice in this depart- 
ment, so that accommodations were immediately made for ninety-sii 
pupils. Eight classes of twelve each were formed — five of boys and 
three of girls. The pupils took hold of the work vrith much enthusi- 



166 Report of the 

asm and in most cases the interest still continues unabated. The 
work in this department at present does not take the place of or 
encroach upoQ the time of any other department but is really extra 
work which is done during the hours usually devoted to recreation. 
Only two of the classes practice during the regular school hours, the 
other six reporting in the afternoon from 1:30 to 4:3^. The boys' 
classes each have two lessons of one and one half hours each and the 
girls one lesson, of same duration, per week. Majiual training is 
optional, but after a pupil has chosen it he cannot leave off without 
presenting a note from his parents. 

The Course op Study. 
The following is a synopsis of the course being pursued : 

( try-square, 

gauge, 
I dividers, 
I. Exercises in methods of holding ! bevel, 
and using, 1 saw, 

mallet, 
chisel, 
[ plane. 

II. Elementary frame work in pine f S!!^t^oSJ^i!!iHao •^•^+ 
f^^^r^ >.Try^ ^^,-^+c, ,v.nri« KxT- +Kr^j tcn OH an d uiortisc 1 oiut, 
fi«?;„^w ^ ^ 1 endT&M frame, ' 

mstruetor, j^ ^^.^^ T & M brace fiame. 

f cylinders, 
j spindles, 

III. Lathe work, { handles, 

I rosettes, 
[ etc. 

( miter lap joint, 
dovetail joint, 

IV. Advanced frame work in various | lap dovetail joint, 

kinds of wood, from drawings-^ methods of scarfing, 
made by the pupils, keyed joints, 

double dovetail puzzle, 

L etc. 

( frame work, 

[ nail driving, 

V. Small articles, embracing, i turning, 

jig-sawing, C boot black's box, 
[ etc., < cannon on trucks, 

( M^ind-mill, etc. 
f sawing, 
I turning, 

VI. Cabinet work in hard wood, em- j framing:, 

bracing, ) carving, 

I paneling, C brackets, 

^_ etc., < foot-rests, 

( wall pockets, etc. 

Each boy is required to do every piece of Nos. I, II and III. 
In Nos. lY, Y and YI the pupils do not all do the same kind of 
work but are given woik which will suit their individual ability and 
taste to some extent. During the course the pupils take turns at the 
drafting board where they make working drawings from sketches pre- 
viously brought in of objects to be afterwards worked out in wood. 
This work is by no means intended to take the place of the work in 
the drawing room but is intended to supplement it with work devel- 
oping certain functions of the mind and teaching certain practical 



Industrial Education Commission. 167 

methods which that cannot do. A pupil is asked to make a sketch of 
his most approved pattern of a box on which to black his boots. This 
sets him to thinking. After he has the idea it often puzzles him to 
put it on paper in good form. After an intelligible sketch he makes 
a working drawing to scale and later the object in wood. He takes 
pride in the box because it is his own design and he will put his best 
work into it. 

From time to time during the course talks, illustrated as far as pos- 
sible, are given on subjects connected with or suggested by the work, 
e. g.^ uses of and methods of obtaining shellac, glue, turpentine, rosin, 
etc., also history of saws, a glance at methods of obtaining and com- 
mon properties of iron and steel, etc. 

The course for the girls is made up of No. I, of the above with the 
exception of the use of the plane, a lesson in nail driving, modelling 
of simple ornamental forms in clay and carving the same in wood. 
Each pupil is given the opportunity of selecting some object to orna- 
ment with wood carving. If approved by the instructor, the pupil is 
permitted to make working drawing and clay model of the ornamental 
parts and then carve the same in wood. 

Work Already Accomplished. 

The pupils have all finished No. I, of the above synopsis, having 
made over two hundred pieces. The boys are well along in No. II, 
having completed about one hundred and sixty pieces already. They 
have also begun No. III. Besides No. I, the girls have had the ex- 
ercise in nail driving (about seventy pieces) and several are now 
modelling in clay. About fifty drawings and sketches have been 
handed in. 

The Future Work. 

No definite plans have yet been made for next year's work in this 
department. The subject is under careful consideration by the manual 
training committee and some definite plan is hoped for soon. The 
proposed three years' course for boys comprising English, mathematics, 
science, drawing and manual training is now being laid out ; also, an 
estimate of the cost of the necessary equipment is being made. The 
manual training in such a course would occupy the pupil two hours 
per day and would include both wood and iron work. The endeavor, 
I think, should be to graduate boys with as thorough a knowledge of 
the branches taken upas boys have who are graduated at any manual 
training school in the country, but at first it might not be practicable 
to take so many branches of the work, e. g.^ it would not be possible 
to do any extended forge or foundry work in the high school build- 
ing; but we could have a very thorough and practical course in wood 
and machine tool work which are the most important. The drawing 
for the pupils in this course should be carried beyond the present high 



168 Report op the 

school course and should be under the direction of the superintendents 
of manual training. Pupils takino; any other coarse in the high school 
should also have an opportunity, as they do now, to take manual 
training as an extra study twice per week. The course for these would 
necessarily be much more limited than for those taking the regular 
manual training school course, but would give them much training and 
practical knowledge. 

Quoting from "A Plea for the training of the Hand," by President 
Gilman, of John Hopkins University, ''the value of manual training 
as a method of improving the brain and nervous system, or, in other 
words, our thinking apparatus, must be acknowledged. * * * 
The importance of carrying forward manual training simultaneously 
with all other educational processes must not be lost sight of, so that 
the brain shall be taught simultaneously by the eye through the 
printed page and through every variety of object lesson, by the hand 
in measuring, matching, marking and making. * * * * 

Manual training is an essential part of a good education, whether that 
education be restricted to the common school or carried on to the 
highest discipline of technical schools and universities." Coupling 
the above quotation with the fact that many of our public school 
pupils leave school before they are sufficiently advanced to enter the 
high school, and at the same time remembering that these would be 
greatly aided in gaining a livelihood by having even a limited course 
of manual training, I think we cannot fail to see the importance of 
placing manual training within the reach of grammar as well as high 
school pupils. In the primary grades we have drawing and applied 
kindergarten work, and in the grammar grades drawing; but, quoting 
again from President Gilman on this subject, " Something more than 
drawing is needed, fundamental as drawing is." Give the boys an 
opportunity to take a course in wood work, and the girls a chance to 
learn plain sewing. Judging from the experience of others, they can 
take this manual training three or four hours per week and yet not 
neglect in the least their other studies. 

(Signed) Charles A. Bennett. 

St. Paul, Minn., January 25^ 1888. 

The following letter from Mr. Bennett continues the record, with 
some additional observations : 

St. Paul, Minn., October 10^ 1888. 
'' Last year $500 was appropriated to fit up a small shop. This year 
$2,000 has been appropriated to equip shops for the new school. We 
are located in the high school building, but our school is enlirely sep- 
arate from the high school in other respects this year. Just now we 
are working under many disadvantages, being obliged to have our 
school in the afternoon in the rooms where the high school pupils 



Industrial Education Commission. 169 

were in the forenoon. In about a month, when the new addition to 
the building is completed, we shall have six good rooms. This year 
we shall not have metal work, but we have a large room which we 
hope to fit up for that purpose next year. At present we are having 
the machinery for wood work put in place. 

" Regarding the attitude of the public toward the matter, I think I 
can saiely state that we have the hearty support of every one that 
knows the scope of our work and of many who do not. Although the 
press has done its part, it is true that many are still ignorant of the 
real object of our school. We are aware that our school differs from 
those of some of our western sisters and eastern cousins, but we have 
studied the matter quite carefully and at last have taken a decided 
step. Many of the ideas expressed in our reports of one year ago are 
not our ideas to-day, as you will see by the course of study adopted." 

Course of Study — {For Boys Only). 

In high school building pupils are received from all parts of the city 
from eighth grade. 

Course of Study. 

first year. 

First rerTO.— Arithmetic, United States History, English Grammar, Drawing one 

hour per day, Shop Work two hours per day, 
Second Term. — Arithmetic, United States History, English Grammar, Drawing one 
hour per day. Shop Work two hours per day. 

SECOND YEAR. 

First Term,. — Algebra, English Composition or Latin, Physiology, Drawing one 

hour per day. Shop Work two hours per day. 
Second Te7-w.— Algebra, English Composition or Latin, Physical Geography, Draw- 
ing one hour per day. Shop Work two hours per day. 

THIRD YEAR. 

First Term. — Geometry, History or Latin, Physics, Book-keeping, Drawing one hour 

per day. Shop Work two hours per day. 
Seco7id Term. — Geometry, History or Latin, Physics, Book-keeping, Drawing one 
hour per day. Shop Work two hours per day. 
Latin is an optional study in the course, to meet the requirements of technological 
schools which many of our graduates would seek to enter. The following is an out- 
line of the work in drawing and shop work for the three years covered by the fore" 
going course of study : 

Drawing and Shop Work, 
first year. 
Drawing, Free-hand. — 3 periods per week : 

(a) Brief review of elementary work in straight and curved 

lines. 

(b) Projection (orthographic) and practical sketching of 

work done in shop, giving dimensions. 

(c) Design, principles of, with work especially adapted to 

wood carving. 
Mechanical. — 2 periods, per week : 

(a) Use of instruments ; geometrical problems with applications. 

(b) Working drawings of exercises in shop. etc. 

Shop Work. — In carpenter shop, proper care and use of tools ; carpentry, joining, 
wood carving. 



170 Keport op the 

SECOND YEAR. 

Drawing, Free-hand, — 2 periods per week : 

(a) Principles of perspective. 

(b) Object and model drawing. 

(c) Shading. 
Mechanical. — 3 hours per week : 

(a) Developments and sections. 

(b) Orthographic and isometric projections and shadows. 

(c) Elements of machine construction. 

Shop Work. — In pattern shop, wood turning, pattermaking, care and use of such 
wood-working machinery as lathe, planer, circular saw, jig saw, band 
saw, molding and casting in soft metal. 

THIRD YEAR. 

Drawing, Free-hand. — 1 period (or hour) per week : 

(a) Pen and ink or pencil sketches of machinery. 
Mechanical. — 4 periods per week : 

(a) Machine construction. 

(b) Elementary machine design. 

(c) Elementary building construction. 

Shop Work. — In the machine room, chipping, filing, drilling, turning, milling, fit- 
ting, setting up, care and management of steam engines and boilers. 

This account of the school may be properly supplemented by the 
following report from the Committee on Manual Training, presented 
to the Board of Education of St. Paul, Minnesota, on February 6, 1888, 
and adopted by the Board : 

"This report does not assume to be a dogmatic answer to the many 
difficult questions which attend the introduction of manual training 
into courses of study for public schools — indeed the various and con- 
flicting opinions of members of the committee limit the extent of the 
common ground upon which they could agree. Its design is to direct 
public attention to what the board purposes to do in this department 
in the future, and to elicit public discussion from which good may 
come. 

''In the beginning it is assumed that there is entire unanimity as to 
the desirability of making the instruction of the schools practical, and 
that there is a strong public sentiment in favor of manual training as 
a part of the course of study, although differences of opinion may ex- 
ist as to the best means for coordinating the new with the old and 
traditional training now in vogue. The thought for some time seems 
to have been prevalent that our schools have too much to do with 
words and the memorizing of symbols, and too little to do with things ; 
that the education of our youth should include a training to express 
thought by the labor of the hand as well as to express it by language. 
Coinciding in these views, the committee gave little thought to the 
question of the desirability of giving our pupils an opportunity for 
manual training — indeed, the work already in progress had decided 
that question for our city — but passed at once to the consideration of 
the best means to accomplish the end decided to be desirable. 

''We find that a' present a room in the basement of the high school 
has been fitted up with benches, tools, and necessary appliances to 



Industrial Education Commission. 171 

accommodate pupils in wood work. That pupils of the high school — 
five classes of boys and three of girls, numbering twelve pupils each — 
are admitted, the boys taking two lessons of one and one-half hours 
each, and the girls one lesson of the same duration per week. The 
committee were unanimously of the opinion that two mistakes had 
been made in the experiment commenced last September. One in 
attaching it to the high schools as a department where, before, courses 
of study were full, and thus making work here additional to that which, 
in the judgment of some, was already too heavy. Manual training, 
if introduced properly into our schools, must take the place of some- 
thing less important and practical. One or two lessons per week in 
shop work, taken by pupils who are already pursuing an exacting 
course of study, will scarcely meet the end proposed by the friends of 
the new education. As now in operation, the manual experiment has 
little opportunity for future development or increased usefulness. 

" It seemed, too, that the appropriate training for the girls was in the 
line of household duties, the art of cooking and the use of woman's 
' universal implement,' the needle, rather than the tools of the car- 
penter's bench. 

" As to the ultimate future of the movement which is finding expres- 
sion in many manual experiments in the school systems of our larger 
cities, it is believed that courses of study will be modified, that much 
that is unnatural will give place to rational training. Primary schools 
will train children to observe and express their notions in clay and 
with the pencil, as well as abstractedly in language. This will be the 
manual training of the primary grades. In schools between the pri- 
mary and the high school there will be less drill in the technicalities 
of grammar, less memorizing of the details of geography, less puzzling 
over abstractions and more teaching which shall bring pupils into 
contact with material things and forces, and which shall give them 
ability not only to express thought by language, but by the graphic 
and creative work of the hand. This will be the manual training of 
these intermediate grades. Then would come the manual training 
school, which would admit pupils from the eighth or even a lower 
grade if experience should show.it to be desirable, but at least at an 
age when they could profitably tkke up the work of the school. In 
this school pupils who desire to advance on this line rather than to 
enter the high school, would take a three years' course of study, in- 
cluding the studies of English, mathematics and science, with two 
hours' shop work per day and one hour instruction in drawing. 

•' The foregoing is an outline of what, in the judgment of the writer 
of this report, should ultimately grow out of our experiment in manual 
training for the benefit of the boys, although upon all points the mem- 
bers of the committee were not in ac<^ord. It is not a scheme which 
would turn our public schools into trade schools. It would not revo- 
lutionize our school system. It does not establish a work- shop in each 



172 Keport of the 

school building, but economically gathers from all the schools those 
of a proper advancement who desire to complete the course in one 
school where mental and manual training go on together. It answers 
those who ask: Should not manual training be a part of a good edu- 
cation, whether that education be restricted to the common school, or 
carried to the highest discipline of technical schools and universities? 
by pointing to the manual work in drawing, and applied kindergarten 
training of the primary schools, to the original designs and the con- 
structive work in different materials of the intermediate grades. It 
recognizes the importance of carrying forward manual training simul- 
taneously with all other educational processes, but provides suitable 
training for different grades, reserving shop work and the use of wood 
and machine tools for pupils who have completed, or nearly com- 
pleted the grammar school course. 

'' In accordance with the ideal thus presented there would be no 
necessity of large expenditures. The present facilities, with those that 
will be furnished by the addition to the high school, now in process of 
erection, will answer for the present, and the ideal manual training 
school will be a natural growth and development of the work now in 
progress, if it be properly fostered. 

" Having presented a possible though somewhat distant future of the 
work under the charge of the committee, we desire to present our 
recommendation affecting its more immediate outlook. For the re- 
mainder of the present school year, we recommend the continuance 
of the present order of things. We recommend that this committee 
be authorized to prepare and submit a course of study covering a 
period of three years, to include the studies of English, mathematics, 
science, drawing and shop work, that at the end of the present 
school year, pupils who have finished the work of the grammar schools, 
may be admitted to either the high school or the manual training 
school ; that the manual training school for the present be located in 
the basement of the high school building, its pupils reciting in English, 
mathematics and science, in the same classes and to the same teachers 
as the pupils of the high school. 

''It seems important to the writerpf this report that there should be 
no organic connection between the high school and the manual train- 
ing school. Such a connection would hamper the latter in its devel- 
opment. If experience should show that it would be best to admit 
pupils to the manual training school from lower grades than those of 
the grammar schools, the change could then be made without dis- 
turbing the gradation of the high school. 

" With regard to special training for girls, awaiting definite results 
from cities where expensive experiments are in progress, the commit- 
tee recommends that for the present the board rests the matter with 
the general training given to all the pupils, both boys and girls, of the 
grade schools." 



Industrial Education Commission. 173 



XIII. MISSOURI. 

St. Louis Manual Training School. 

This institution is the pioneer among special manual training schools 
in the United States, and has held high rank from the first. The 
ordinance establishing it, was adopted by the board of directors of the 
Washington University, June 6, 1879, and the school was opened 
September 6, 1880. 

Article II of the ordinance declares that "Its object shall be in- 
struction in mathematics, drawing and the English branches of a high- 
school course, and instruction and practice in the use of tools. The 
tool instruction, as at present contemplated, shall include carpentry, 
wood turning, patternmaking, iron chipping and filing, forge work, 
brazing and soldering, the use of machine shop tools and such other 
instruction of a similar character as may be deemed advisable to add 
to the foregoing from time to time. 

'^ The students will divide their working hours, as nearly as possi- 
ble, equally between mental and manual exercises." 

The object of the work in general is thus stated by Mr. Woodward, 
the able and successful director : '-''All the shop work is disciplinary ; 
special trades are not taught^ nor are articles manufactured for sale ; 
as a rule the products of the shop have no value except as exercises, 
illustrating typical forms and methods. 

" The object of the school is education and none of the class exercises, 
whether in the shop, the drawing or the recitation room, can be sup- 
posed to have any pecuniary value. The most instructive tasks have 
no outcome except in the intelligence and skill of the student himself. 

"The scope of any trade is too narrow for educational purposes 
Manual education should be as broad and liberal as intellectual. A 
shop which manufactures for the market and expects a revenue from 
the sale of its products, is necessarily confined to salable work, and a 
systematic and progressive series of lessons is impossible, except at 
great cost. If the object of the shop is education, a student should 
be allowed to discontinue any task or process the moment he has 
learned to do it well. If the shop were intended to make money, the 
students would be kept at work on what they could do best, at the 
expense of breadth and versatility. In a factory intellectual life and 
activity is not aimed at; its sole object is the production of articles 
for the market. In a manual training school everything is for the 
benefit of the boy ; he is the most important thing in the shop ; he is 
the only article to he put upon the market. 

" Even in manual education the chief object is mental development 



174 Report of the 

and culture. Manual dexterity is but the evidence of a certain kind 
of mental power; and this mental power, coupled with a familiarity 
with the tools the hand uses, is doubtless the only basis of that sound 
practical judgment and ready mastery of material forces and problems 
which always characterizes one well fitted for the duties of active, 
industrial life. Hence the primary object is the acquirement of that 
mental clearness and intellectual acumen which is the natural out- 
growth of logical processes fully comprehended and intelligently 
executed. This thoughtful activity results in skill in the use of tools 
and materials. The production of specific articles is a secondary and 
far inferior consideration. Moreover the training must be general^ 
that its possible economic application may have the widest range ; 
we therefore abstract all the mechanical processes and manual arts 
and typical tools of the trades and occupations of men, and arrange a 
systematic course of instruction in the same. Thus, without teaching 
any one trade, we teach the essential mechanical principles of all. 

''Accordingly, the shop training is gained by regular and carefully 
graded lessons designed to cover as much ground as possible, and to 
teach thoroughly the uses of ordinary tools. This does not imply the 
attainment of sufficient skill to produce either the fine work or ex- 
hibit the rapidity of the skilled mechanic. 

''The manual training school is not an asylum for dull or lazy 
boys. It clearly recognizes the preeminent value and necessity for 
intellectual development and discipline. In presenting some novel 
features in its course of instruction, the managers do not assume that 
in other schools there is too much intellectual and moral training, but 
that there is too little manual training for ordinary American boys. 
This school exacts close and thoughtful study with tools as well as 
books. It proposes by lengthening the usual school day a full hour, 
and by abridging somewhat the number of daily recitations, to find 
time for drawing and tool work, and thus to secure a more liberal, 
intellectual and physical development — a more symmetrical educa- 
tion. 

" ^ Manual training is essential to the right and full development 
of the human mind.' Certain intellectual faculties, such as observa- 
tion and judgment in inductive reasoning cannotT be properly trained 
except through the instrumentality of the hand. Manual training 
cultivates the judgment rather than the memory. 

'-'- In a manual training school properly so called, no attempt is made 
to cultivate dexterity at the expense of thought. No mere sleight-of- 
hand is aimed at, nor is muscular exercise of itself held to be of 
educational value. An exercise whether with tools or with books is 
valuable only in proportion to the demand it makes upon the mind 
for intelligent, thoughtful work. In the school shop the stage of 
mechanical habit is never reached. The only habit actually acquired 
is that of thinking. No blow is struck, no line drawn, no motion 



Industrial Education Commission. 175 

regulated, from muscular habit. The. quality of every act springs 
from the conscious will accompanied by a definite act of judgment. 
Such a limited training cannot, of course, produce a high degree of 
manual skill. 

" We have distinctly stated that our pupils do not become skilled 
mechanics, nor do we teach them the full details of a single trade. 
The tools whose theory, care and use we teach are representative, and 
the processes employed just far enough to make every step clear and 
experimentally understood, equally underlie a score of trades. By 
the words, experimentally understood, is meant that it is not enough 
to know that a certain outline is to be produced or a certain adapta- 
tion is to be secured, but one must know just the forces to be directed, 
the motions needed, and in their order, and all as the result of the 
closest attention and steady intellectual activity. 

''It occasionally happens that students who have special aptitudes 
in certain directions find great difficulty in mastering subjects in other 
directions. In such cases it is often the best course to yield to natu- 
ral tastes, and to assist the student in finding his proper sphere of 
work and study. A decided aptitude for handicraft is, somietimes, 
coupled with a strong aversion to and unfitness for literary work 
which largely taxes the memory. There can be no doubt that, in 
such cases, more time should be spent in the laboratory, and less in 
the library and recitation room. On the other hand, great facility in 
the acquisition and use of language is often accompanied by a great 
lack of either mechanical interest or power. When such a basis is 
discovered, the lad should unquestionably be sent to his grammar and 
dictionary rather than to the laboratory or drafting-room. It is con- 
fidently believed that the developments of this school will prevent 
those serious errors in the choice of a vocation which often prove so 
fatal to the fondest hopes. 

" One great object of the school is to foster a higher appreciation 
of the value and dignity of intelligent labor, and the worth and 
respectability of laboring men. A boy who sees nothing in manual 
labor but mere brute force, despises both the labor and the laborer. 
With the acquisition of skill in himself, comes the ability and willing- 
ness to recognize skill in his fellows. When once he appreciates skill 
in handicraft, he regards the skilful workman with sympathy and re- 
spect. 

*' Again, it is highly desirable that a larger proportion of intelligent 
and well educated youth should devote their energies to manual pur- 
suits or to the development of mechanical industries, both for their 
own sakes and for the sake of the occupations and for society. 

" Undoubtedly the common belief is, that it requires no great 
amount of brains or intelligence to be a mechanic ; and those who go 
through ordinary higher schools are not expected by their teachers to 
be mechanics. Every bright farmers boy, every gifted son of a me- 



176 Report of the 

chanic, if he but stay in school, is sure to be stolen away from the oc- 
cupation of his father and led into the ranks of the ' learned profes- 
sions.' 

" This loss of the best minds, and the lack of the results of a gener- 
ous education does much to give color to popular prejudice, and to 
keep down mechanic arts in the estimation of all. This result is most 
unfortuuate for society. It creates distinctions which ought not exist, 
and gives rise to false estimates of the comparative value of the vari- 
ous kinds of intellectual culture. 'The successful conduct of any 
business demands and develops a special scholarship, which is not 
less valuable as a means of discipline because it is useful as a source 
of wealth. The business man may be narrow, but so may the scholar ; 
and in either case, the narrowness results not so much from the ne- 
cessities of the vocation, as from the character of the man.' 

*' Hitherto, men who have cultivated their minds have neglected 
their hands ; and those who have labored with their hands have found 
no opportunity to cultivate their brains. The crying demand to day is 
for intellectual combined with natural training. It is this want that 
this school aims to supply. Its motto is : 



'^ 'The Cultured Mind, the Skilful Hand. 



" It is not assumed that every boy who enters this school is to be a 
mechanic. Some will find that they have no taste for manual arts, 
and will turn into other paths — law, medicine, or literature. Some 
who develop both natural skill and strong intellectual powers will 
push on through the polytechnic school into the realms of professional 
life as engineers and scientists. Others will find their greatest use- 
fulness as well as highest happiness in some branch of mechanical 
work into which they will readily step when they leave school. All 
will gain intellectually and morally by their experience in contact 
with things. The grand result will be an increasing interest in manu- 
facturing pursuits, more intelligent mechanics, more successful manu- 
facturers, better lawyers, more skilful physicians and more useful 
citizens." 

Admission. 

Candidates for admission to the first year class must be at least 
fourteen years of age, and must pass a good examination on the fol- 
lowing subjects : 

1. Arithmetic, including the fundamental rules; common and deci- 
mal fractions; the tables of weights, measures and their use; per- 
centage ; interest ; and analysis of miscellaneous problems. Candi- 
dates will be examined orally in mental arithmetic, including frac- 
tions, mixed numbers and the higher multiplication table. 

2. Common school geography, including map drawing from memory. 

3. Spelling and penmanship. 



Industrial Education Commtssion. I'iT 

4. The writing of good descriptive and narrative English, with the 
correct use of capitals and punctuation. 

Candidates for the second-year class must be at least fifteen years 
of age. All that is specified above will be required of them, and, in 
addition, the book studies of the first-year class. 

Similar requirements apply to those desiring to enter the third-year 
class. 

When candidates can present certificates of having completed a 
thorough course of study preparatory to a high school, or of having 
done satisfactory work in a high school or school of equal grade, they 
may be admitted either without examination or on one less formal in 
character. 

The course of instruction covers three years, and embraces five 
parallel lines — three purely intellectual, and two both intellectual 
and manual — as follows. 

First. — A course of pure mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, 
geometry and plane trigonometry. 

Second. — A course in science and applied mathematics, including 
physical geography, botany, natural philosophy, chemistry, mensura- 
tion and book keeping. 

Third. — A course in language and literature, including English 
grammar, spelling, rhetoric, composition, literature, history and the 
elements of civics and political economy. Latin and French are in- 
troduced as electives with English or science. 

Fourth. — A course in penmanship, free-hand and mechanical draw- 
ing. 

Firth. — A course of tool instruction, including joinery, wood-turn- 
ing, molding, patternmaking, brazing, soldering, forging and bench 
and machine work in metals. 

Drawing. 

The course of drawing embraces three general divisions : 
1. Free-hand Drawing., designed to educate the sense of form and 
proportion, to teach the eye to observe accurately; and to train the 
hand to rapidly delineate the forms either of existing objects or of 
ideals in the mind. 

2. Mechanical Drawing^ including the use of instruments geo- 
metric construction ; the arrangement of projection, elevations, plans 
and sections; also the various methods of representing shades and 
shadows with pen and brush. 

3. Technical Drawing or Drafting, illustrating conventional 
colors and designs ; systems of architectual or shop drawings. The 
drawings required familiarize the pupil with the proportions and de- 
tails of various classes of machines and structures. 

12 Ed. Com. 



178 Report of the 

Students have no option or election as to particular studies^ except 
as regards Latin and French ; each must conform to the course as laid 
down and take every branch in its order. 

The arrangement of studies and shop-work by years is substantially 
as follows : 

First Year. 

Arithmetic, completed, Algebra, to equations. 

Er gli h language, its structure and use. Study of selected pieces. History of the 
United Slates. 

Latin grammar and reader may be taken in place of English. 

Introduction to science. Physical geography, botany. 

Drawing, mechanical and free-hand. Penmanship, carpentry and joinery. Wood- 
carving. Wood-turning. 

Second Year. 

Algebra, through quadratics. Geometry begun. 

Natural Philosophy. Experimental work in the physical laboratory. * Principles 
of mechanics. 

English composition and literature. Rhetoric. English History. 

Latin [Caesar] luay be taken in place of English and history. 

Drawing, line-shading and tinting machines. Development of surface, free-hand 
detail drawing, isometric projections. 

Shop-work, forging, drawing, upsetting, bending, punching, welding, tempering; 
pattern making, casting with plaster, soldering and brazing. 

Third Year. 

Geometry continued through plane and solid. Mensuration. 

English composition and literature. Civics and political economy. 

French or German may be taken in place of English and history, or in place of 
the science study. 

Physiology. Element of chemistry. Students who have taken Latin at and who 
intend to enter the Polytechnic schoolafter completing the course in this school, will 
take history in the place of physiology and chemistry. 

Book-keeping. 

Drawing, brush-shading, machine and architectual drawing. 

Work in the machine shop. Bench work and fitting, turning, drilling, planing, 
screw-cutting, etc. Execution of projects. 

At least once a week in every class the literary work takes the form 
of reading and studying classic English or English composition, and 
the science study is omitted to give more time lor such work. In tlie 
lower classes, penmanship takes the place of drawing occasionally, 
according to needs. 

The shop instruction is given similarly to laboratory lectures. The 
instructor at the bench, machine or anvil, fully explains the princi- 
ples to be used or illustrated, and executes in the presence of the 
whole class the day's lesson, giving all needed information, and at 
times using the blackboard. When it is possible, the pupils make 
working drawings of the piece or models to be executed, and questions 
are asked and answered, that all obscurities may be removed. The class 
then proceeds to the execution of the task, leaving the instructor to 

*In connection with the physical laboratory is a special workshop containing work 
benches, hand tools, and two lathes, driven by a small upright steam engine built 
by the class of 1886. 



Industrial Education Commission. • 179 

give additional help to such as need it. At a specified time the lesson 
ceases and the work is brought in, commented on and marked. It is 
not necessary that all the work assigned should be finished ; the essen- 
tial thing is that it should be well begun and carried on with reason- 
able speed and accuracy. 

Students who complete the course with credit in all its details receive 
the diploma of the school and are entitled to certificates which will 
admit them to the freshman polytechnic class of the undergraduate 
department without examination, provided they have the required 
knowledge of French^ German, or Latin and history. 

Results. 

The results of his experience are thus summarized by the director 
of the school : 

'' The school is now in its eighth year. From the start it has been 
well patronized, and vacant seats have been few. The enrolment 
shows a steady increase. The zeal and enthusiasm of the students 
have been developed to a most gratifying extent, extending into all 
departments of work. The variety afforded by the daily programme 
has had the moral and intellectual effect expected, and an unusual 
degree of sober earnestness has been shown. The wholesome moral 
effect of a course of training which interests and stimulates the ardor 
of the student is most marked. Parents observe the beneficial influ- 
ence of occupation. The suggestions of the day fill the mind with 
healthy thoughts and appetites during the leisure hours. Success in 
drawing or shop work has often had the eff'ect of arousing the ambi- 
tion in mathematics and history, and vice versa. Gradually the 
students acquire two most valuable habits which are certain to influ- 
ence their whole lives, namely, precision and methods. 

'-'- The habit of working from drawings and to nice measurements 
has given the students a confidence in themselves altogether new. 
This is shown in the readiness with which they urPdertake the execution 
of small commissions in behalf of the school, and the handiness which 
they displa}^ at home. From the testimony of parents the physical, 
intellectual and moral effect of the school is exceedingly satisfactory. 

'• The school has served to demonstrate the entire feasibility of incor- 
porating the elements of intellectual and manual training in such a 
way that each is the gainer thereby ; and that there is a public de- 
mand for an education which shall insure the most valuable mental 
discipline, at the same time that it gives knowledge and skill of great 
intrinsic worth. '' 

In May, 1886, Prof. Woodward, gave the following brief state- 
ment of the fruits of manual training, in the Journal of Education: 

"' The value of manual training, when properly combined wirh liter- 
ary, scientific and mathematical studies, will be shown in various ways. 

" 1. Science and mathematics will profit from a better understand- 



180 % Report of the 

ing of forms, materials, and processes, and from the readiness with 
which their principles may be illustrated. 

^' 2. Without shop-work, drawing loses half its value. 

"3. Correct notions of things, relations and forces, derived from 
actual handling and doing, go far toward a just comprehension of 
language in general ; that is. manual training cultivates the mechanical 
and scientific imagination, and enables one to see the force of meta- 
phors in which physical terms are employed to express metaphysical 
truths. 

"4. Manual training will stimulate a love for simplicity of state- 
ment, and a disposition to reject fine sounding words whose meaning 
is obscure. 

'' 5. It will awaken a lively interest in school, and invest dull sub- 
jects with new life. 

'' 6. It will keep boys and girls out of mischief, both in and out of 
school. 

" 7. It will keep boys longer at school. 

'' 8. It will give boys with strong mechanical aptitudes, and fond- 
ness for objective study, an equal chance with those of good memories 
for language. 

'' 9. It will materially aid in the selection of occupations when 
school -life is over. 

" 10. It will enable an employer of labor to better estimate, the com- 
parati^'e value of unskilled and skilled labor, and to exercise a higher 
consideration for the laboring man. 

'•' 11. It will raise the standards of attainments in mechanical oc- 
cupations, and invest them with new dignity and worth. 

'' 12. It will increase the bread- winning and home-making power of 
the average boy, who has his bread to win and his home to make. 

'^ 13. It will stimulate invention. The age of invention is yet to 
come, and manual training is the very breath of its nostrils. 

'^ 14. We shall eDJl>y the extraordinary advantage of having lawyers, 
journalists and politicians with more correct views of social and na- 
tional conditions and problems. " 

To the above he adds in 1887 : 

'^ 15. It will help to prevent the growth of a feeling of contempt for 
manual occupations and for those who live by manual labor. 

" 16 It will to a certain extent readjust social standards in the in- 
terest of true manliness and intrinsic worth. 

'' 17. It will accelerate the progress of civilization by greatly dimi- 
nishing the criminal and pauper classes, which are largely made up 
of those who are neither willing nor able to earn an honest living. 

"18. It will show itself in a hundred ways in the future homes of 
our present pupils, on the one hand, in the convenience and economy 
of useful appliances, on the other, in evidence of good taste in mat- 
ters of grace and beauty. " 



Industrial Education Commission. 181 



XIV. NEBRASKA. 

Omaha Public Schools. 

Manual training was introduced into the public schools of Omaha 
about four years ago. The attitude of the public toward it, and its 
general plan and working are indicated by the following statement 
taken from the third annual report of the committee on manual train- 
ing; 

In September of 1887, everything was in good working order, but 
the delays of the previous year still hindered the expected progress 
in this department ; still, in all the classes, first and second year, the 
attendance nas been seventy-five. 

The first year is devoted to carpentry, joinery and wood-turning; 
the second year to wood-turning, carving and molding. The third 
year pupils will have molding and blacksmithing, chipping and filing, 
though at present a strict adherence to the proposed course of study 
is not practicable. 

Additional expenditures have been made during the past year as 
follows : 

Engine, . $325 00 

Boiler and setting, 575 00 

Wood carving tools, 150 00 

Extra tools for turning, 70 00 

Total, $1,120 00 

The permanent investment has been about $3,000. There will be 
needed to prepare for the third year's work about $1,000 more. For 
the sum of $t,000 there will be secured for this department a com- 
plete outfit of tools for carpentry, wood carving, turning, molding 
and blacksmithing, with the necessary machinery, large enough to 
provide for eighty pupils. 

The pupils have done excellent work in their other studies, and 
your committee think that the manual training school has passed 
beyond the experimental stage and may fairly be considered as an 
established part of the high school course. Your committee would 
call attention to the fact that the attendance of girls has increased and 
that they have done excellent work. 

The public, as well as some members of the board, are still laboring 
under the mistake of supposing that the purpose of this department is 
to make mechanics. Again your committee would reiterate that the 
purpose of this work is to train the eye and the hand to work together, 
to familiarize the pupils with the use of tools, and to develop their 



182 Eeport of the 

self-reliance. The training will be valuable, whatever the students 
may decide to do after they graduate ; if they conclude to follow a 
trade, they can advance more rapidly than would otherwise be pos- 
sible. 

The expense per pupil is no larger than for instruction in any other 
special study taken by the same number of pupils. It cost less for a 
pupil to take manual training than to take Latin or Greek. When we 
remember that the pupils in the manual training school spend two study 
hours each day in the shop or in the drawing-room, it is evident that 
the teacher of manual training is giving the same amount of time to 
seventy- five pupils which the teacher of physics or chemistry would 
give to one hundred and fifty pupils. To determine the expense per 
pupil, the expenses of the department are divided by the number of 
pupils. To compare the expenses of physics with that in manual 
training, taking into account the study hours, the number of pupils in 
the manual training school should be multiplied by two which would 
make the expense per pupil $14 a year. Your committee is further 
convinced that the advantages derived fiom manual training are 
much greater than can be derived from any other study. Indeed, the 
pupils in this department have really two studies— drawing and shop 
work. For not only do the students in the manual training school 
learn to use tools and to work from drawings, but to reason by the 
practical application of efi'ects to their appropriate causes. They are 
taught to put into practice the -knowledge they have acquired, thus 
fitting them for practical life. 

Manual training is mainly given to boys, but your committee have 
become convinced that girls should have a practical training suited 
to their needs, and to supply this training have, in connection with 
the committee on the high school, opened a department of domestic 
economy. A competent teacher has been secured, who, for the bal- 
ance of the year, will give instruction in cooking to the girls of the 
high school and the eighth grade and to past graduates of the high 
school. Should this instruction meet with general favor and bring 
forth the results expected, instruction in the future may be given in 
sewing, cutting and fitting garments, and such other branches of 
domestic economy as will assist our girls in fitting themselves for 
useful lives. This instruction has been given in some of the eastern 
cities with gratifying success, and your committee believe that this 
new course of study will do much foi' the school system of Omaha. 

Your committee refer with pleasure to the change in public senti- 
ment with regard to the manual training department. When opened 
it had few friends, now it meets with very general approval. There 
have been vexatious delays in putting the manual training school into 
good shape — alukewarmness on the part of some members of the board 
and a decided opposition by some of the daily papers. The school is 
now in good condition and well equipped. The board looks upon it 



Industrial Education Commission. 183 

with more favor, and the opposition from the press has ceased. The 
same obstacles will be encountered by the school of domestic economy 
but will also be overcome, and in the future no one would dream of 
giving up either of these departments. 

Many visitors from the State and other States have visited the 
school during the past year and, as a result of these visits, plans for 
similar schools have been discussed and in several instances put in 
operation. . So that the manual training school of Omaha is not only 
educating the pupils who attend it, but the people of several States. 
Inquiries as to our methods come from cities in the east and west? 
Omaha being the pioneer in estalishing manual training as a part of 
the school system. Through this school more attention has been at- 
tracted to Omaha on the part of educators than by anything else con- 
nected with our schools. 

The committee recommend that before the end of the present school 
year, the necessary tools and machinery for the teaching of blacksmith- 
ing be procured, so that at the beginning of next year everything may 
be ready for a third year's course. 

Expenses. 

For the convenience of many from other cities who make enquiries 
as to the cost of this department, we give the following statistics : 

Machinery. 

Twenty benches for eighty pupils, $286 00 

Tools for eighty pupils 510 00 

Lathes for eighty pupils, 580 00 

Shafting, pullies and belting, 188 45 

Wood-turning tools, 200 00 

Setting up lathes 200 00 

Wood-carving tools, 150 00 

Molding benches and tools, 200 00 

Engine, 325 00 

Boiler, 300 00 

Setting boiler, 275 00 

Blacksmithing outfit (probable) 750 00 

$3,964 45' 

Current Expenses. 

Salary of teacher, $1,100 00 

Salary of engineer, * 700 00 

Material, 100 00 

Wear of tools, 100 00 

Fuel, 100 00 

$2,100 00 



184 Report of the 



XV. NEW JERSEY. 

1. Elizabeth Public {Schools. 

The city superintendent writes, October 1, 1888 : 

" A few years ago we introduced industrial drawing into our schools^ 
not without considerable opposition however. To-day it is probably 
more highly appraciate I in this comma aity than any other depart- 
ment of our school work and we are enlarging our borders, having 
secured State aid for manual training under recent legislation and ap- 
pointed an assistant to Miss Habberton, our very competent instruc- 
tor in this department. 

" I send you herewith a copy of our course of instruction in which, as 
you will see, considerable attention is given to industrial drawing. I 
also enclose a copy of Miss Habberton's last report. With the in- 
creased means at our command we have decided to introduce new 
features this year, as clay modeling, sewing for the girls and work- 
ing in wood for the boys. 

" We pay Miss Habberton $1,000 per annum and her assistant $600." 

Report of industrial drawing in public schools of Elizabeth, N. J., 
1887-8: 

The industrial work in the public schools of Elizabeth, during the 
year 1887-8 was necessarily confined to drawing and cutting and 
making. The drawing was industrial in character, half the year being 
given to mechanical drawing, the other half to decoration and origi 
nal design. 

In the primary department the mechanical drawing was combined 
with free hand object- drawing, the familiar objects of the class room 
frequently serving as models, i. e., books, desks, door, window, etc. 
In decorations, specimens of simple historic borders and figures were 
given as studies, and original designs made weekly. Facility in de- 
signing was much aided by paper cuttings and their arrangements 
known as parquety. 

In the lower grammar grades the development of surfaces was prac- 
tically taught by drawing, cutting and pasting geometrical solids from 
wooden models. 

In the higher grammar grades, .working drawings were introduced, 
i. e., plan and elevations to scale from wooden models and various 
features of the class room as door, window, side or end of room, etc. 
The decorative work throughout the grammar department included 
study of historic forms and designing from the same for borders, fig- 
ures and surfaces, floral decoration receiving special attention during 
the spring months when studies were made from natural forms. 



Industrial Education Commission. 185 

The mechanical work in the high school embraced a thorough course 
in geometrical construction, and perspective both parallel and angular. 

Designing for decoration was made a specialty ; the designs both 
from historical and floral motives were of an unusually high character. 
Ornamental lettering was also taught. 

All good designs were executed in India ink with pen or brush. 

The public schools of the city of Elizabeth are arranged in three 
departments — primary, grammar and high schools; the primary in 
six grades; the grammar in four grades; the high school in three 
grades. 

I. Pkimary Department. . 

The studies pursued in the primary departme;it are music, calis- 
thenics, oral instruction, language lessons, reading, spelling, arithmetic 
writing, drawing, geography. 

The course in drawing, beginning with the sixth (lowest) class is 
laid out as follows. 

Sixth Class. — Taught on ruled slates and prepared paper. Straight lines. Simple 

forms. 
Fifth Class. — Taught on ruled slates and prepared paper. Straight lines and 

simple forms. 
Fourth Class. — Taught on ruled slates and prepared paper ; straight and curved 

lines, simple forms. 

In this and preceding grades should be taught the proper position 
of pupil, book or slate and pencil. Slates or paper with quarter-inch 
cross- lines should be used. Lines should be drawn from blackboard 
illustrations, then from dictation, and lastly from memory. Parallel 
lines, horizontal, vertical and oblique. Bisected, trisected, quadri- 
sected. Right angles, squares, with diameters and diagonals. Com- 
binations of lines of one, two, three or four quarters to make attrac- 
tive borders. Squares of two, three or four inches as outlines of de- 
signs. 

Patterns given on Steiger's cards will assist the teacher and encour- 
age pupils to originate designs. 

Third Class. — Lines, angles and quadrilaterals of dictated meaurements with rule 
and free-hand, from models and familiar objects and blackboard 
illustrq,tion. 

Borders and figures with straight lines and combinations of straight 
i- and curved lines. 

Squares with diameters, diagonals and other dividing lines. Origi- 
nal designs weekly. 
Second C?a5S.— Review of principles given in third class. Door and window of 
room (dictated measurements). 

Appearance of rectangular objects in various positions (perspec- 
tive efforts, but no technical terms, except "vanishing point"), 
cubes, boxes, steps, books, etc. 

Simple and reversed curves. Circle seen as an eclipse, illustrated 
by vase forms, tumblers, pail, chip basket. 

Designing as in third class, using greater variety of combinations, 
interlacing and new enclosing forms. 



186 Report of the , 

First CTa55.— Re^dew of principles given in second class. More varied illustra- 
tions of the same. Curves of a more subtle character, with a few 
simple finals, and a few simple leaf and flower forms to be use- 
in original designs. 
Brush work with India ink for selected pupils. 

II. Grammar Department. 

The studies pursued in the grammar department are, music, oral 
instruction, language lessons, reading, spelling, arithmetic, writing, 
drawing, geography. United States history, grammar, bookkeeping, 
anatomy, physiology and hygiene. 

The course in drawing is as follows : 

Fourth Class.— Foxjiv months to be given to mechanical work, and six months to 
free-hand drawing and designing. All mechanical work to be 
done from models, with blackboard illustrations, or occasional 
dictation. Kulers and compasses to be the only tools. Weekly 
design* from all pupils. Good designs to be enlarged and fin- 
ished with brash. 
Review of principles given in first primary class, with diff"erent 
illustrations. Developed surfaces or patterns of cube, triangular 
and rectangular prisms, quarter section of cube, Greek cross and 
other simple solids ; all to be cut from paper or pasteboard and 
fastened together. Designing. Copying from blackboard and 
drawing from dictation, borders, figures and designs for indefinite 
surfaces, as oil cloth, wall paper, etc. 
Motives given for conventional fiowers forms and simple combina- 
tions of straight and curved interlacing forms, from which to 
make interlacing designs. 

Third Class. — Mechanical drawing similar to fourth class, but to scale instead of 
from dictated measurements. A great number of patterns from 
models ; also working drawings of the same with plan and eleva- 
tion. 
Designing, sirnilar to fourth class, using different patterns as copies, 
and difl:erent motives for design. Designs to be adapted to greater 
variety of enclosing forms. Spiral forms with classical and flower 
Ornaments. Elements of lettering. 

Second Clasf. — All mechanical drawing to scale. 

Elavations at | inch and I inch scale of window, door, side of room* 
etc. Working drawings continued from more difiicult models, 
cylindrical, conical and pyramidal sectional ^^ews. 

Designing — continuation of principles as in third class. Variety of 
leading lines as motives, and new ornament forms. Simple speci- 
mens of Greek, Celtic and Moorish forms for copying from black- 
board, and for imitation in original work. New leaf and flower 
forms. Good work to be finished with brush. Lettering con- 
tinued. 

First Class. — Mechanical drawing similar to second class, but more advanced. 
Foreshortened views in projection of surfaces at different angles, as 
in triangular, pentagonal and hexagonal prism, etc. Appearance of 
the same models used in working drawings. Two or three models 
combined in one study. 
Designing — review of principles given in second class, with difterent 
illustrations. New motives from Egyptian, Persian and Arabian 
ornament. Advanced lettering with original monogram. 



Industrial Education Commission. 187 

2. The Stevens Institute of Technology. 

The plan of instruction is designed to be such as will best fit young 
men of ability for positions of usefulness in the departments of me- 
chanical engineering, and in kindred scientific pursuits. 

With this view there is afforded : 

1. A thorough training in the elementary and advanced branches 
of mathematics, and their application to mechanical constructions. 

2. A systematic course in the theory of machine construction, and 
a study of existing systems. 

3. The subject of mechanical drawing (which may well be called the 
language of engineering) forms a separate department, to which much 
time and attention are devoted. The course comprises the use of in- 
struments and colors, descriptive geometry, shades, shadows and per- 
spective, and the analysis of mechanical movements — the principles 
involved being at once and co.itinuously applied in the construction 
of working drawings from measurements of machines already built, 
as well as in making original designs. 

4. An extensive course of manual exercises in shop practice is com- 
bined with a course of experimental mechanics, to form a separate de- 
partment, which aims to cooperate with the departments of engineer- 
ing, mechanical and drawing, so as to bear to them the same relation 
as the physical and chemical laboratories do to the class-room work 
in physics and chemistry. Its courses, aside from the introduction of 
the student to the functions of tools, etc., are directly supplemental to 
the department of mechanical drawing, by familiarizing the student 
with the use of working drawings in the shop, and by the embodiment 
of the theoretical principles of mechanism in the form of exercises in 
gear cutting, etc., and directly supplemental to the departments of 
engineering and mechanics, by re enforcing the apprehension of the- 
oretical principles through the performance of exercises in the course 
of experimental mechanics. 

5. Arrangements of an unsually perfect character are made to give 
a thorough, practical course of instruction in physics, by means of 
physical laboratories, in which the student is guided by the professor 
of physics in experimental researches bearing upon the subjects of his 
special study. Thus the students practice methods of making precise 
measurements of lengths, angles, volumes, weights and time, and then 
apply these processes in the measurements of magnitudes relating to 
the phenomena of light, sound, heat, electricity and magnetism. By 
this plan of instruction the knowledge of physical facts and laws is 
indelibly impressed on the mind of the student, while, at the same 
time, he is trained in methods of experimental investigation which 
will be of great value to him in the actual practice of his profession of 
mechanical engineer. 

6. The subject of chemistry is taught, chiefly by experimental work 



188 Report of the 

in the laboratory, with accompanying lectures and class-room instruc- 
tion. It is believed that in this manner only can students be made 
thoroughly conversant with the subject. 

7. The French and German language form an essential part of the 
course of instruction, since they are indispensable to the engineer and 
man of science as the vehicles of a vast amount of information, and 
also as affording that kind of mental culture which mathematical and 
physical science, if followed exclusively, would fail to supply. A 
course in Spanish was introduced in 1.^88, having especially in view 
the extensive use of that language in portions of America. 

8. A department of belles lettres furnishes the means of cultivat- 
ing literary taste and a facility in the graceful use of language, both 
in speaking and writing, which are as desirable in the engineer and 
min of science ag in tha classical student. 

9. The subject of applied electricity is taught in a thorough manner 
by means of complete appliances in the way of instruments for elec- 
trical measurements, dynamo machines, electric lamps and the like, 
so as to fit graduates for responsible positions in connection with elec- 
tric lighting and other similar companies. 

No applicant under the age of seventeen years is admitted to ex- 
amination for the freshman class unless the faculty is satisfied that 
he is able to bear the burden of the institute course without detri- 
ment to his health, nor is any applicant under the age of seventeen 
allowed to enter his class unless his examination shows proof of un- 
usual profiency. 

Admission. 

The examinations for admission include the following subjects: 
Arithmetic Algehra. — Simple equations, theory of radicals, equa- 
tions of the second degree, arithmetical and geometrical progression, 
permutations, biominal theorem, indeterminate coefiicients, and the 
summation of series. Great importance is attached to a thorough 
knowledge and readiness in solution of simultaneous equations of 
the second degree, and the reduction of radicals. Geometry, — All of 
plane, solid and spherical geometry; Plane trigonometry^ especially 
the numerical solution of plane triangles; English Grammar: 
Geography; Composition; Universal History ; Rhetoric ; French. 

In addition to the above applicants for advanced standing must 
pass examination in the subjects already completed by the class to 
which admission is desired. 

Fees and Expenses. 

The fees for each year of the entire course, for instruction and the 
use of instruments, are one hundred and fifty dollars, for students at 
the time residing in the State of New Jersey. Those not residing — 



Industrial Education Commission. 189 

i. e. coming across the river each day from New York, or the like — 
are charged seventy-five dollars extra. 

A charge of five dollars per term is made to each student for chem- 
icals used in the laboratory. 

Jn the department of shop work the student is expected to pay for 
the material used; the total cost for the entire course does not exceed 
sixty- five dollars. 

Each student is required, on admission, to make a deposit of ten 
dollars to meet incidental expenses, such as those for drawing ma- 
terials or special chemical supplies. This deposit can only be with- 
drawn when he graduates or leaves the institute. 

The annual expenses of a student for books, board and tuition, are 
estimated at from five hundred to six hundred dollars. 

Course of Study. 

- The full course of the institute occupies the period of four years, 
each year being divided into a supplementary term, during which the 
sophomore, junior and senior classes devote eight hours per day to 
the department of experimental mechanics and shop-work, and three 
regular terms. 

Synopsis of Studies. 

First Year. 

First Term. Mathematics — Logarithms, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, with 

practicable applications to engineering problems ; 

Mechanical Drawing — Elementary Projections ; 

Languages— French ; 

Physics— General Properties of Matter, Inductive Mechanics ; 

Beiles-Lettres — Fowler's English Language, Lectures, Essays; 

Shop-Work. 
Second Term, Mathematics — Theory of Equations, Analytical Geometry and Cal- 
culus ; Exercises in Mathematical Laboratory ; 

Mechanical Drawing— Elementary Projections ; 

Languages — French ; 

Physics — Pneumatics, Laws of Vibratory Motions, and Acoustics; 

Beiles-Lettres — Deductive Logic; 

Shop-Work. * 

Third Term; Mathematics — Analytical Geometry and Calculus ; Exercises in Mat- 
ematical Laboratory ; 

Mechanical Drawing — Elementary Projections ; 

Languages — French ; 

Physics — Light ; 

Beiles-Lettres — Inductive Logic ; 

Shop-Work. 
Supplementary Term. Shop-Work 

Second Year. 
First Term. Mathematics— Differental Calculus; 

Mechanical Drawing-Machine Drawing from Sketches, Descriptive 
Geometry ; 

Language— French concluded, German; 

Physics — Heat and Meteorology ; 

Beiles-Lettres — English Literature; 

Chemistry — Theoretical and General ; 

Shop-Work. 



190 Keport of the 

Second Term. Mathematics— Integral Calculus ; 

]Srechanical Drawing — Machine Drawing from Sketches, Descriptive 

Geometry ; 
Languages — German ; 
Physics — Magnetism, and Electricity; 
Belles-Lettres — English Literature ; 
Chemistry — Theoretical and General ; 
Shop- Work. 
Third Term. Mathematics— Integral Calculus, Applications ; 

Mechanical Drawing— Machine Drawing from Sketches, Descriptive 

Geometry ; 
Languages— German ; 
Physics— Electricity ; 
Belles-Lettres — English Literature; 
Chemistry — Theoretical and General ; 
Shop-Work. 
Supplementary Term. Shop-Work, 

Third Year. 
First Term. Mathematics — Analytical ^Mechanics ; 

Mechanical Drawing — Kinematics, Machine Drawing, Descriptive 

Geometry ; 
Lan guages — G erm an ; 
Physics — Lectures on the use of instruments for making Precise 

Measures and on their Applications to the Practical Work in tha 

Physical Laboratory ; 
Chemistry — Qualitative Analys s ; 
Engineering — Strength, Elasticity and other properties of Materials 

of Engineering, Construction of Foundations, Framing ; 
Shop- Work. 
Second Term. Mathematics — Analytical Mechanics ; 

Mechanical Drawing — Kinematics, Machine DraT\Ting, Descriptive 

Geometry ; 
Languages — German concluded ; 
Physics— Lectures (see First Term) ; 

Chemistry— Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis and Metallurgy; 
Engineering — Mechanism of Engines, Boilers, Lectures ; 
,Shop-Work. 
Third Term Mathematics — Analytical Mechanics; 

Mechanical Drawing — Kinematics, Machine Drawing; 

Physics — Lecture (see First Term) ; 

Chemistry — Quantitative Analysis ; 

Engineering — Machinery, Hydraulic Engineering, Engine Design, 

Lectures ; 
Shop-Work. 
Supplementary Term. Experimental Mechanics; 

Fourth Year. 
First Term. Mathematics — Construction, Adjustment and Use of Engineering In- 
struments, Graphical Statics, Selected Mathematical Problems ; 
Mechanical Drawing — Machine Drawing and Design ; 
Physics — Laboratory Work ; 
Engineering — Water, Wind and Traction Engines, Furnace Design, 

Lectures ; 
Applied Electricity — Lectures and Laboratory Work; 
Second Term Mathematics— Theory of Bridges and Roofs, with Graphical Statics 

Applied, Selected Problems; 
Mechanical Drawing — Machine Drawing and Design ; 
Physics— Laboratory Work; 
Engineering — Thermo-dynamics, Steam and Air Engines, Engine 

Construction, Lectures; 
Applied Electricity — Lectures and Laboratory Work. 



Industrial EDticATioN Commission. 191 

Third Term. Work on Graduating Theses, including Experimental Investigation 
and General Research. 

Department of Mathematics and Mechanics. 

These subjects are taught in close connection, not only because 
such treatment is specially suitable for students of engineering, but 
also because mathematics has its deepest foundations in the mechanics 
of nature. 

To this end trigonometry is accompanied with practical applica- 
tions to such engineering problems as will emphasize important for- 
mulas and impress them upon the memory. Such problems are de- 
vised and executed with special reference to system and accuracy in 
obtaining data and in calculating results, and to give sufficient prac- 
tice with logarithmic and other tables. 

In order that students may be thoroughly grounded in the fundamen- 
tal facts and principles ot analytical mechanics before commencing 
a mathematical treatment of the subject, a series of practical exercises, 
with models, in the Mathematical Laloratory^ is given, and these are 
so arranged as to teach the student, also the fundamental principles 
of analytical geometry and the calculus in advance of the full treat- 
ment of those subjects in the class-room. 

Mechanical Drawing. 

In the organization of the department of mechanical drawing, the object aimed at 
is to make the course of instruction thorough, practical, of direct utility, and com- 
prehensive. 

The requirements of many of the industrial arts at the present day are such as to 
necessitate the delineation, not only of what already exists, but of what is yet to be 
made. Both demand a knowledge of the science of drawling, and the latter espec- 
ially involves a certain exercise of the imagination, in order to form clear physical 
conceptions of the particular design in contemplation, not only in regard to its ap- 
pearance as a whole, but as to the relations and proportions of its p^-ts. 

This ability to forma vivid and distinct mental image, as well as to fix it per- 
manently by accurate representations, though useful to all, is more emphatically so 
to the mechanical engineer, who is daily called on, not to copy what has been done, 
but to do w^iat has not been. 

These considerations have been kept distinctly in sight in the conduct of this de- 
partment; the matter taught and the method of teaching have been selected with 
the view of giving the student a firm grasp of principles, of developing and strength- 
ening his imaginative power, and giving him direct practice in the application of 
both. The course adopted to attain these ends may be briefly outlined as follows : 

The foundation is laid by practice in the simple drawing of lines, in order to ac- 
quire facility in the manipulation of the instruments. The exercises selected are 
such as will be of subsequent use, arranged in a progressive order ; beginning witli 
geometrical constructions involving straight lines and circular arcs only, and ending 
with the more complex curves, such as the eclipse, helix, epicj^cloids, etc. Atten- 
tion to symmetry, proj)ortion and arragement is enforced from the first, the dia- 
grams not being copied, but constructed. 

Elementary studies of projection are then taken up; the method adopted being 
that of beginning by making the drawings of a solid object bounded by plain sur- 
faces, such as prism, in various positions, and proceeding by degrees to the similar 
treatment of more complex forms. The relation between the drawing and the thing 
drawn is more easily grasped at first, when the latter is not a mere abstraction, like 
a line or plane in space, but a definite and tangible object ; and when the subject is 



192 Report of the 

presented in this manner, no diflaculty is experienced with the similar problems of 
intersection and development, which not only bring the imaginative faculty into 
play, but afford practical exercises of great utility. 

The next step is to the drawing of parts of machines from actual measurements. 

The student is at once set at work as a draughtsman ; a part or the whole of some 
piece of mechanism is assigned to him, which he is to study, to measure, to sketch, 
and finally to draw; the requirement being, exactly as if he were employed in the 
drawing office of an engineering establishment, that he shall produce complete 
working plans, from which the original could be replaced were it destroyed. He 
thus acquires some knowledge of details, and is taught to observe closely, while at 
the same time his previously acquired skill and information are practically applied 

Simultaneously with this, descriptive geometry is taken up as an abstract science ; 
not as an ultimate object, but its practical applications being always kept in view, it 
is made a means to an end, and that end is the acquirement of such a mastery of 
the principles of drawing, that the student shall be able to cope with any problem 
when it arises in the course of his practice. The identity of the operations with 
those of mechanical drawing is never lost sight of, and the problems are frequently 
put in a practical form. This is not done exclusively, however, because they afford, in 
the abstract, the best possible exercise of the imaginative power. The study is continu- 
ed in application to shades and shadows and to linear perspecti ve; in connection with 
which the principles of ariel perspective, as apx^lied to the shading of mechanical 
objects, are explained, and a little time is given to practice in the execution of 
finished drawings. But the ability to make elaboratory shaded pictures is regarded 
as the least valuable of the qualihcations of a mechanical draughtsman. However 
great his skill in this way may be, the accomplishment will save him but little in 
his proressional career if it be acquired at the expense of accuracy, or facility in the 
construction of working plans. Therefore, while it is designed to impart a thorough 
understandingof the principles involved in making such drawings, comparatively 
little time is devoted to their practical execution. 

The mechanical engineer plans machines, and these move ; consequently, the 
study of the laws of their motions is an important branch of his education ; and it 
is properly given a place in this department, since to make the drawings of a piece 
of mechanism implies the making of them so that each part shall move in harmony 
with the rest, and the depth of engineering disgrace is reached when, through any 
oversight, one part interferes with another. This study might also, especially w^hen 
the more complicated mechanical movements are considered, be regarded as a branch 
of applied mathematics of the higher order. But, however, these laws may be in- 
vestigated, this* fact remains ; that for the purposes of the draughtsman the results 
must be translated into his language and expressed in a graphic form—the ways of 
the analyst are not his ways, and the algebraic formula must be replaced by a dia- 
gram. Fortunately, however, the investigations may be made, at least as applied 
to by far the larger and more important part of the motions with which he has to 
deal, in his own language and by his own methods. In this part of the course, 
therefore, the geometry of mechanism is taught by graphical construction alone, 
practical exercises in the plotting of mechanical movements, the drawing of the 
various forms of gearing, the coustructiou of curves representing varied motion 
and the like, being introduced from time to time. 

Further, the course includes some practice in actual planning. A subject being 
assigned or selected the student proceeds to work it up as though already engaged 
in the active pursuit of his profession ; making first a skeleton diagram of the 
movement, and sketching in the proposed arrangement of parts, he calculates the 
strength and proportion of these, modifying the original plan when it is found 
necessary to do so by the results of these calculations, then making drawings of each 
part in detail, and finally a general plan of the completed design ; a general super- 
vision being exercised over the work while in progress, and hints and suggestions 
as to details and arrangement being made as occasion arises. 

It should be stated, also, that much care is being taken throughout the course to 
form the habit of correct judgment in determining what drawings to make of any 
subject in hand, and how to arrange them most advantageouly. Written instruc- 



Industrial Education Commission. 193 

tions in regard to this are exceedingly meagre, and yet it is a very important mat- 
ter. The object is to show the workman what to make and liow to make it and ex- 
perience proves that it is very easy to produce drawings wiiich are perfectly correct, 
and yet do not clearly illustrate the objects represented. Nothing facilitates the 
operation of the mechanic more than to have a set of working plans which are 
clear, easily read, and connectedly arranged, and it is almost as important that the 
draughtsman should know just what to draw, as that he should be able to draw it 
well from the first to the last; therefore, the student is taught the necessity of exer- 
cising his judgment in the direction, as well as care and forethought in all that he 
does. 

Summarily, then, the object of the course is not merely to teach the student to 
read and write certain set phrases of the graphic language with ease and tlaency 
but to enable him to wield it with power and for a purpose. He is taught not so 
much to memorize as to compose ; he is encouraged to think for himself, and to ac- 
quire vigor and facility by giving expression to new ideas ; his practice during the 
course being made as nearly as possible to resemble that upon which he will enter 
at its close. 

Engineering. 

The cMef aim of this department is to instruct the student in those 
subjects which will enable him to design a machine, or a plant of 
machinery, in accordance with scientific principles; or to review such 
as have been previously made. 

Daring the junior year the studies will pertain to the mechanical 
properties of building materials, foundations of structures, the effi- 
ciency of machines and the general principles of designing ma- 
chinery. 

Problems are frequently given under each of these heads to make 
certain that the student can apply the principles which he has studied 
to practical problems. 

During the senior year the principles of energy are studied in con- 
nection with such motors as : hydraulic motors, windmills, steam 
and air engines, pumps, compressors and special machines of known 
types. As much time as circumstances permit is given to thermo-dy- 
namics and its applications. Problems requiring designs or nufiieri- 
cal solutions are occasionally given. Instruction is given chiefly 
through text-books and frequently but informal lectures. 

The plan of the instruction consists in requiring labor on the part 
of the student ; ascertaining by suitable tests if knowledge is acquired, 
and giving assistance when needed. 

At the close of the course a "Graduating Thesis " is required oi' 
every student, in which he is expected to exhibit his proficiency by 
designing and describing the construction and management of some 
machine, by planning some manufacturing establishment, giving bills 
of materials t'nd estimates of cost; or by describing some original 
research, in the course of which he has investigated some subject of 
importance to the profession and obtainned new and valuable informa- 
tion and data capable of practical application in mechanical engineer- 
ing. These ate deposited in the institute and are open for inspection 
at any future time. 
13 Ed. Com. 



194: Report of the 

Instruction in regard to the proper materials for tools — their forms 
and modes of use ia the construction of machines, is given m ^' Shop- 
work." 

Experiments to test certain theoretical principles are given in the 

" Course of Experimental Mechanics. " 

Shop Work. 

The workshop, fitted up by President Morton, and formally presented 
by him to the trustees, on the 14th day of May, 1881, is provided with 
machine and other tools, so as to accomodate fifty students at one 
time. 

The " workshop *' course of the institute is intended to supply the 
student with a knowledge, as complete as possible, of the best exist- 
ing appliances, methods, and processes necessary to the construction 
of such mechanical designs as the theoretical part of the institute's 
course will enable him to originate. 

In accordance with this plan, the institute is provided with a ma- 
chine and carpenter shop, and iron and brass foundry, and a black- 
smith's shop, in which the sUident is first sufficiently familiarized with 
the working of wood and metal, to enable him to recognize and ap- 
preciate differences in machines, tools and methods, of manipulation 
in founding and blacksmi thing, after which he is taken to certain 
large manufacturing establishments, so selected as to enable him to 
see and examine, on a large scale, that with which the institute's shops 
have afforded him familiarity in an elementary and limited degree. 

Tlie course includes work with metal lathes, planers, drill press, 
milling machine; also work in carpentry, wood turning, vise work, 
blacksmithing, molding, steam fitting. The iron lathes, planers and 
miller are all in continual use, the length of the courses on these 
machines being divided up equally among the students of the class. 
Much time is devoted to pattern making. The course has of late been 
much improved, the students being furnished with complete patterns 
as models, as well as drawing of parts that they are required to 
make, together with complete stock pieces for making the same. 

Each student when assigned to the pattern making course has 
already executed molding, wood turning and carpenter work; he 
therefore, has a knowledge of how a pattern should be made, as well 
as skill in wood turning, and in the use of pattern making tools. In 
order that work of this course, which is re^jarded as the most valuable 
one to the future engineer, shall be as efficient as possible, the time 
devoted to it is made continuous by causing it to fall entirely in the 
two supplementary terms. 

Nearly all the wood lathes during the preleminary terms are let for 
the use of the patternmakers. 

Students work in pairs on the metal lathes, planers, drill press, mil 
ler, at steam fitting and blacksmithing, and in groups of four at mill- 



Industrial Educatioit Commission. 195 

wrighting, this arrangement having been found to give much better 
results than in working singly. 

Part of the work that previous to this time hag been done in the 
senior supplementary term has been incorporated in the shopwork 
course, viz : Tension of belting in transmitting different horse power ; 
rate of flow of water under a constant head through different lengths 
of pipe, and through pipes containing globe valves, cocks and elbows; 
use of steam engine indicator in connection with a slide valve engine 
and model specially arranged to secure to the student a thorough 
knowledge of the exact signification of the several portions of an in- 
dicator card; determination of the maximum load that can be sus- 
tained by tension pieces of tool steel, machine steel, wrought iron, 
cast iron, and brass, that have been turned to a standard size during 
the metal lathe coarse; elasticity of a pine beam 32 feet long, sup- 
ported at its ends and loaded at various points along its lenglh. 

All this experimental work occurs after the first regular term of the 
sophomore year, at which time the students have acquired sufficient 
knowledge to calculate the results from formulae, as well as to derive 
them from experiment. In the molding course the cupola is used as 
often as a sufficient number of molds are prepared to consume an 
entire charge of metal. With six students in the foundry casting oc- 
curs every second day. 

The time devoted to shop- work by each student is distributed as 
follows : 

Carpenter, 25 hours. 

Brass turning, 20 " 

Steam fitting, 16 " 

Steam boilers, ........ 16 *' 

Metal testing, 8 " 

Elasticity of pine beam, ... 8 " 

Flow of water though pipes, . 8 " 

Friction of belting, 8 " 

Indicator cards, 8 " 



Metal lathe, 225 hours. 

Pattern-making, ....... 100 

Metal planer, 65 

Vise work, 40 

Molding, 40 

Wood-turning, 40 

Blacksmithing, 40 

Miller, 32 

Drill press, 24 

Millwrighting, 24 



A graduating exercise in shop-work is now being put into opera- 
tion, and consists of a detailed analysis of the cost of manufacturing 
a given number of some large machine, a working drawing of which 
is supplied the student. The steps involved in the execution of the 
exercise are the following : 

1. Under the advice of skilled professional estimators, the kinds 
and sizes of machine tools required, and the time each tool would be 
used on each part of the machine to be built, are determined and en- 
tered on a blank form. 

2. The list of machine tools necessary being determined, the cost of 
pulleys, belting, shafting and floor space are determined and tabulated 

3. A form giving apparatus for motive power, etc., is then filled 
out, care being taken that the student is brought into contact with 



19G Report of the 

reliable practicable advice in determining upon those details of outfit 
which cannot be dednitely settled without personal experience. 

4. From the contents of the last two forms, the size and arrange- 
ment of building will be determined; and the cost of the necessary 
building will be obtained by the student from a contractor who is 
engaged to supply such information when called upon. 

5. Estimate of the cost of stock and running expenses will then be 
made, and an estimate of profits calculated. 

A course of experimental mechanics given to the senior class during 
the supplementary term, and during a portion of the regular terms, is 
intended to be supplementary to the work of the third year in analy- 
tical and applied mechanics, resistance of materials and heat, as w^ell 
as preparatory to the study of the steam engine, pursued during the 
regular terms of the fourth year. 

The interest manifested in these exercises during the three years in 
which they have been introduced has stimulated the department to 
make systematic arrangements for their continuance and for more 
thorough instruction in the execution of the experimental tasks. It 
is arranged under eight groups, and each group is capable of aff'ording 
three tasks, each of which students, working in pairs, can perform in 
one day of eight hour?. Consequently, provision is made for forty eight 
students as a maximum. The programme of operations is as follows : • 

During the months of July and August a party of assistants re- 
hearses the exercises, so that no time need be lost in preparations dur- 
ing September. The same assistants take charge of a group of exer- 
cises during the supplementary term, and aid students to secure, with- 
out loss of time, the data belonging to experiments. As soon as the 
data of any one experiment is secured, the students report to the 
chief instructor, who directs such calculations as are necessary to de- 
duce from the observed data the desired conclusions, after which the 
hext exercise in regular order is assigned. Blanks for the data to be 
observed and for the results to be deduced are in readiness, so that 
the success of each task within the specified time may be assured. 

The exercises in experimental mechanics, as arranged for the class 
of '84, included: breaking strength of metals; elasticity tests, includ- 
ing springs; valve settings; injector test; pump test; flow of water; 
flow of steam; boiler test; dynamo test; Buckeye endne test; anal- 
ysis of chimney gases; driving power of belts. 

Students perform an experiment and collect data with assistant in- 
structor, and work up results and deductions with head of department. 
For each exercise one day is allow^ed for performing the experiment, 
and one day for working up data. 

In view of the rapid developments of electrical science, and the 
close relations existing between many of the new applications of elec- 
tricity and the work of the mechanical engineer, it has been judged 



Industrial Education Commission. 197 

advisable to extend the regular course of the institute somewhat in 
this direction. 

The fact that a large number of our present graduates hold promi- 
nent and responsible positions in the electrical companies throughout 
the country sufficiently proves that our course, as heretofore carried 
one, is well adapted to prepare those pursuing it for the profession of 
the electrical engineer, who must manifestly be first of all a mechani 
cal engineer, and on this foundation build a certain amount of knowl- 
edge and experience in the special theory and practice of electric ap- 
plications. 

It is believed that by the addition to our former general instruction 
in electric science of a special department of applied electricity as a 
part of our regular course, the actual requirements of the profession 
will be best met. 

In this department, which has now been in successful operation for 
two years, the theoretical knowledge acquired in our previous regular 
course has been supplemented by systematic laboratory instruction; 
in the management and care of batteries, galvanometers, rheostats, 
electrometers, condensers, etc.; in the measurement of resistances 
of wires, batteries, insulation, resistance and capacity of cables, elec- 
tromotive force, etc. These and other experiments have been made 
sufficiently numerous and varied to familiarize the student with elec ■ 
trical terms, as potential, electromotive force, resistance, etc.; to give 
him a realizing sense of the various electrical magnitudes, as volts, 
ohm, ampere, etc., and to point out the quantitative relations of these 
units to the ordinary mechanical ones. 

Special attention has been given to problems in connection with 
dynamo machines, such as the measurement of powerful currents, de- 
terminations of efficiency in generators and in electric motors, photo- 
metry of arc and incandescent lamps, consumption of energy in gen- 
erator, conductors and lamps, dimensions of wires for various currents, 
etc. 

For reasons above explained, it has been determined, after careful consideration, 
not to establish a special course in electrical engineering. A competent electrical en- 
gineer needs to be a competent mechanical engineer, and nothing taught in our fall 
course is unnecessary for the electrical engineer. To quote the words of the presi- 
dent of one of the largest electrical companies in the country, "An electrical engineer 
must be 90 per cent, mechanical, 10 per cent, electrical." 

There is also an academic and preparatory department of the Ste- 
vens Institute of Technology, Graduation in the school secures ad- 
mission into the institute. It is designed to meet the wants of youth 
preparing for the Stevens Institute and similar scientific and techni- 
cal schools. But the school does not confine its studies to those re- 
quired for admission into scientific schools. It embraces, also, in its 
English and classical courses of study all the branches pursued by 
students preparing for college or business. 



198 Report of the 



3. Montclair Public Schools. 

At a school meeting, held on May 23, 1881, a committee was ap- 
pointed to investigate the subject of industrial or technical schools 
and to report at the next annual meeting. On May 22, 1882, after 
hearing the report of the committee, the trustees were authorized to 
give opportunity to the pupils ot the grammar school, from twelve to 
fourteen years of age, to learn the proper use of wood-working tools, 
and $1,000 was appropriated for the purpose. 

Accordingly, a competent instructor w^as secured, a room in the 
school building was fitted up with carpenters' benches, tool racks, 
tool boxes and twenty- five sets each of carpenters' and carvers' tools; 
the tools, benches and fitting costing about $350. 

On October 1, 18o2, the school was opened. The second and 
third grade grammar classes (ages from eleven to fourteen) were 
selected. A course of work was laid out. When it was possible to 
find anything written on the subject it was purchased and used as 
text book. While the boys were in the work shop, the girls of the 
same classes, under the guidance of their regular teachers, received 
lessons in needlework, embroidery and plain sewing. They designed 
and drew patterns, then transferred the same to goods. After this 
they w^orked out the patterns with colored woolens or silks. 

The average attendance each year in the carpenter shop has been 
about fifty and in the sewing classes about forty pupils. The time 
devoted to the work has been one hour twice a week, in school hours. 
Arrangements were made so that the usual school studies were not 
interfered with. At the close of the year the pupils who have at- 
tended the industrial school have passed satisfactory examinations in 
their regular school studies and maintained their standing in their 
respective classes. They appeared not to have lost any ground, but 
rather gained. 

The expenses for starting and carrying on of this work for the several 
years have been as follows : 

First year, $725 86 

Second year, 599 34 

Third year, 528 51 

Fourth j^ear, 681 19 

The teachers' reports for the school year, ending July 1, 1886, are 
as follows : 

Carpentry class, average daily attendance, 30 

Carving class, average daily attendance, 26 

Pupils draw their own desitrns on paper or on blackboard before 
beginning work. Boys in carpentry class have finished the thirty 
lessons in the course laid out, making altogether ono hundred and 
twenty different pieces. Boys in carving class have had practice in panel 



Industrial Education Commission. 199 

work; have made wall brackets, book racks, ink stands, card racks, 
picture frames, etc.; in all seventy pieces. 

Boys show great diversity of talent, some becomino; in a liitle time 
quite expert in tool handling, while others find it much more difficult. 
They show m>uch enthusiasm and love for the work, many being in- 
clined to visit the shop during play hours to work. Kigid discipline 
is maintained at all times, but the teacher has scarcely any trouble or 
annoyance. Each boy has a particular place assigned to him and 
always uses the same set of tools and is held responsible for keeping 
the tools in order and for returning them to their proper places at the 
close of the lesson. 

Course of Instruction in Carpentry. 
Lesson (1) use of hammer, vice, the rule, tri-square ; (2) use of hammer in driv- 
ing nails and spikes ; (3 and 4) use of plane ; (5) use of jointer ; (6) use of chalk line 
and rule ; (7) use of smoothing plane ; (8) use ot saw ; (9) use of rip saw ; (10 and 
11) use of marking gauge ; (12) use of bit and brace ; (13) practice on lessons 9 and 
12; (14) strilving out and boring for mortise; (15) use of mallet and mortising 
chisel ; (16) use of paring chisel ; (17) planing to gauge; (IS) making square frames 
from rough boards ; (19) use of brad awl and screw driver ; (20) driving nails hori; 
zontally; (21) planing boards^out of wind; (22) use of knife for accurate marking ; 
(23) making dovetails ; (24) sharpening tools ; (25 and 26) make square frame with 
locked, joints ; (27 and 28) make square frame, mortised corners; (29 and 30) make 
square frame with mitred corners ; (34) preparing stock, sawing, planing, jointhig; 
(32) striking out stock for different portions of a box ; (33) halving sides and fitting 
ends; (34) putting jjarts together ; (35) smoothing surfaces ; (36) fitting lid to box; 
(37) fitting butts ; (38) fitting lock; (39 and 40) .special instruction in sharpening 



tools. 



4. Newark Technical School. 



Through the zeal and interest of the Newark board of trade a bill 
authorizing the establishment of technical schools was presented 1o 
the Legislature during the session of 1881 and passed, whereby the 
State appropriated from three to five thousand dollars annually, pro- 
vided the citizens raise a like sum By earnest and persistent effort 
the board of trade succeeded in securing an annual subscription of 
five thousand dollars by the citizens for five years, making ten^ thou- 
sand dollars per annum for the support of the school. 

The entire control of these schools is vested in a board of trustees, 
" which shall consist of the Governor, exoMcio, who shall be president 
thereof, two persons selected by the State Board of Education, two by 
the citizens and associations contributing, two by the board of educa- 
tion, school committee, or other like body, of the locality where such 
school is established, and one by the common council, township com- 
mittee or other governing body thereof, if such city, town or town- 
ship shall contribute to the maintenance of such school." 

The trustees received no compensation, but the expenses necessarily 
incurred by them in the discharge of their duties are paid out of the 
school fund of the State. 

The object of all schools established under this act of the Legisla- 



20i) Eeport of the 

ture is the " training and education of pupils in industrial pursuits (in- 
cluding agriculture), so as to enable them to perfect themselves in 
the several branches of industry which require technical instruction." 

The Newark school opened February 9, 1885. 

As stated by the director, *• It is not a school for teachin.e; trades ; it 
is not a school of manual training The classes of men the technical 
school is designed to reach are abnormally developed, it might be 
said, in the line of manual training, and it is the mental training 
which is necessary to round out the complete man. The latter the 
technical school designs to give. No attempt is made to graduate 
superintendents, engineers, or experts of any kind, that being outside 
of the plan of the management. The wish and expectation is that 
when the students have completed their course they will be better 
workmen than when they commenced." 

From the character of the examination papers handed in at the en- 
trance examination it was evident that a large number would avail 
themselves of the advantages offered by the school if they could pass 
the entrance examination. A preparatory class was therefore estab- 
lished, requiring no examination for admission. In this class instruc- 
tion is given in arithmetic, and at the end of the year an examina- 
tion is required which corresponds to the entrance examination. 

In accordance with this recommendation, seventy-seven applicants 
were admitted to a preparatory class January 18, 1886, varving in age 
from sixteen to thirty-one years. At the close of the year, fifty- one 
of this number were in attendance. 

Admission. 

An examination for admission is required more for the sake of find- 
ing out what the applicants know than to admit only a favored few. 
The management find this necessary in order to ascertain the kind of 
material they have to work with. 

The requirements for admission are as follows : 

Applicants for admission must be at least sixteen years of age, of 
good moral character, and residents of Newark. 

They must pass a satisfactory examination in arithmetic, geography, 
history and English composition, to enter the first-year class. 

Certificates of graduation from any grammar school in Newark are 
accepted as the requisite qualification for admission. 

Applicants who have not graduated at a grammar school must pass 
an examination in the above studies. 

No applicants are received who are attending other schools. 

Ai>p]icants who are not prepared to enter the first year class may 
enter the preparatory class without an examination at any time, and 
must be at least fifteen years of age. 

The sessions of the school are held five evenings in the week, viz : 



Industrial Education Commission. 201 

From Monday to Friday inclusive. The hours of each sessions are 
from 7:20 to 9:30. 

In laying out a course of study for any class of pupils the ultimate 
object must be kept in view, even though it is reached in an indirect 
way, and where the object is the greatest good to the greatest num- 
ber, individual desires and x)eculiarities of mental capacity cannot be 
given too much importance. The trustees of the technical school have 
wisely chosen not to attempt too much at the outset, and planned 
their course so as to embrace but few subjects. The few that have 
been selected are well calculated to train the mind in methods of de- 
ductive and inductive reasoning, which, taken together, complete the 
method of true thought. 

The course of study requires four years and is arranged in the follow- 
ing departments : 

Department of Science. 

(a) Physics, with applications. 

(b) General and agricultural chemistry, with applications. 

Department of Mathematics. 

(a) Arithmetic. 

(b) Algebra. 

(c) Geometry (plane and solid). 

(d) Trigonometry, 

(e) Elementary mechanics. 

(f ) Principles and use of machinery and tools. 

Department of Drawing. 

(a) Free-hand. 

(b) Model. 

(c) Cast. 

(^d) Architectural. 

(e) Mechanical. 

" All students are obliged to study free -hand before mechanical draw- 
ing, it being considered essential that, in order to make a good me- 
chanical drawing, a person should be able to make a fair sketch. For 
those who do not intend to be draughtsmen, the course in free-hand 
is of great advantage in enabling them to express ideas graphically to 
others, which can be better done by this means than by words. 

Many applicants seem to have a decided aversion to taking this part 
of the course, especially if the}^ have no taste or apparent talent in 
that direction, and do not expect to follow any mechanical pursuit. 
But there comes a time in the life of every man, no matter what his 
business is, when he wishes to express an idea to another, which can 
be better understood and in less time, if illustrated by a sketch than 
described in words. 



202 Report of the 

The methods of instruction followed in the technical school do not 
differ materially from those pursued elsewhere. Maihemaiics is taught 
by demonstration at the blackboard and individual work at the desks. 
Physics and chemistry are taught by lecture, illustrated by experiments 
showing physical and chemical phenomena, suites of specimens show- 
ing raw materials and manufactured products in technical processes, 
and lantern views. 

Drawing is taught the first year from the '^ flat " or copy. In the 
second year wooden models and plaster casts serve as subjects, the 
sketch being executed with crayon and stump, and without artificial 
aid. The collection of plaster casts is well selected, and includes half- 
size figures of Vensus de Milo, Apollo, Belvidere, Discobolus, the Danc- 
ing Faun, the Fighting Gladiator, the Dying Gladiator, busts of Ajax, 
Napoleon, Laocoon, Sabrina, Julius C^sar, masks of King Agrippa, 
Bitellus and Augustus Csssar, besides casts of hands, arms, feet, leavec?, 
flowers and fruit. From these the student obtains a good idea of pro- 
portion by training the eye to sketch objects from any point of view 
and without measurement. Indirectly, these casts serve another pur- 
pose. The student cannot have these before him many times before 
he asks whom the figures represent. The majority of our students have 
never lieard of the characters in mythology, and many of the histor- 
ical personages represented by these, and often a new inspiration is 
developed, followed up by a search forinformation which would prob- 
ably never have occurred to them otherwise, and which may lead to 
a considerable degree of literary culture." 

In the third and fourth years the students are taught mechanical 
drawing, being at first required to make a drawing of some simple 
model, showing three different views, then a drawing of the pans of 
a machine, and finally the complete machine put together from data 
wdiich they already have, and not from the machine itself. These 
drawings are all working drawings, and such as could be used in any 
shop. 

Results. 

The results simply justify the establishment of the school. At its 
opening, in 1885, there were 109 students: in 1888, 255, 90 of whom 
were in the preparatory class. 

The report of the director, for 1886, says : 

'• The progress which the students make is necessarily slow for two 
reasons : 

" 1st. The majority have been out of school a long time, their minds 
have become dulled by inaction, and they have never had any trained 
habits of thought. 

^' 2d. "But little time can be obtained for study outside of school 
hours, the majority of the students being at work ten hours a day. 

" Occasionally enthusiastic workers in the same shop will get to- 



Industrial Education Commission. 203 

gether during the dinner hour and devote a part of it to study. Em- 
ployers are much gratified to see their employes, who are students of 
the technical school, get together at noon for a ' quiz.' 

'' In the course of conversations with employers, I have discussed the 
matter of their further interest in the school by forwarding to me ap- 
plications for help when they wish to engage clerks, apprentices or 
journeymen, thus giving me the chance of filling such places with 
our students, should there be any whom I could recommend. It 
seems to be the general sentiment of the employers that if an ar- 
rangement of this kind could be carried out it would be of great 
service to them, as well ias the students. 

" The school exhibits a healthy growth and public interest in its suc- 
cess seems to be increasing." 

5. Orange. 

" The sum of $1,000 was appropriated by the common council in 
April (or May), 1887, for the establishment of manual training in our 
public schools; and an additional sum of $1,000 was received from 
the State, in accordance with an act passed in the New Jersey Legis- 
lature on April 28, 1887. 

" We have started this month with sewing, paper weaving and clay 
molding, and kindergarten methods in general, in the primary 
classes. The industrial drawing, including original designs, working 
drawings, etc., has been in the schools for some years, and is con- 
tinued on the same basis. The sewing has been introduced in all 
the grades, including high school. It is probable that domestic 
economy, including lessons in simple cooking, will be introduced 
also, in the girls' upper high school classes, in the course of a few 
months. It is intended to give simple lessons in carpentry to boys of 
the grammar and high school classes, as soon as a competent in- 
structor can be secured, and a room fitted up. The room is already 
secured. The attitude of the public mind seems very favorable to 
the plan, and the interest of the pupils is undoubted. There are two 
special lady teachers, and they are assisted in the lessons by the regu- 
lar class teachers. One lesson a week in drawing, and one lesson in 
sewing, paper weaving or clay work, of some thirty or thirty-five 
minutes each, are given in each class. With the exception of the 
drawing, most of the work has been so recently introduced that I 
cannot speak of results to any extent; but we are greatly pleased 
with the beginning. The industrial drawing which was introduced 
some nine years aso, has been a very successful feature of our course. 

" Very truly yours, 
(Signed) ^'' \] . y\[ . Gu'it^, Superintendent ''' 



20 i Report of the 

6. Vineland 

The following very interesting account of Manual Training in the 
Yineland Schools was kindly furnished to the Commission by the 
Secretary of the school hoard, Mr. W. McGeorge, Jr. : 

" October 1st, 1888. 

u^ * * * I gladly send you an account of what we are doing, 
why we introduced it, how we are trying to do it — the effect upon our 
schools, what aid is afforded by the State, how received by the public, 
etc., etc. 

'' It is well to understand in the first place that our district is the 
smallest one undertaking this work, so far as I know. 

''Our school census calls for about 1.100 children from five to eigh- 
teen. The school buildings are one mile apart (seven of them) with 
the high school in the center, of six rooms. 

" In 1875 at our annual school meeting the subject of industriil edu- 
cation, manual training (neither of which terms is the proper one, I 
prefer creative and constructive training), was casually discussed. At 
once the trustees began to investigate this work. In 1876 by an al- 
most unanimous vote of the school meeting the trustees were instructed 
to prepare plans for its introduction and report at next meeting. A 
self- constituted committee of five gentlemen, all theorists, took the 
matter into their hands hoping to force the trustees to adopt their 
views. Some good work was done by them in the way ot newspaper 
articles and the holding of two public meetings, which served to create 
a strong public sentiment, and thus pave the way lor the trustees to 
carry out their plans. 

'' Our plan was to begin in a small way and at small cost to introduce 
such work as had been tried and successfully engrafted upon the 
public school system. 

'' In 1887 we presented our plans and asked for $500. It was voted 
without an opposing vote in a gathering of 387 citizens. 

'' We recognized that drawing was the basis or foundation, that sew- 
ing presented many valuable points. To do this we must have two 
specialists, and our $500 would not obtain one. We knew this when 
we asked for this amount, but wanted the money for material. 

" We sought for a man who could act as principal and train our sev- 
enteen teachers so that they could teach the children in their schools. 
We found a man of the right stamp, and in June, 1887, opened a 
summer training school for teachers with an tendance of 45, and 
here the year's work was taughto 

"The drawing is divided into ten steps: 

" 1. Begin with splints, making designs in straight lines ; draw these de.signs on 
slates ; then paper is furnished them, 14x11, and these same designs are drawn 
with pencil— no ruler, no rubber. 



Industrial Education Comimission. 205 

"2. Curved lines. Waxed thread or string make clesi-rns, ^ 

and proceed as above, 
"3. Copying from flat, °° ^^1^^^' "" rubbers. 

'■4. Copying from object, j 

"5. Begin mechanical drawing with instruments, etc., etc. 

''Each pupil works independently. As soon as a step is completed 
and his paper accepted, it is sent to the principal and he keeps it. 
returning for it a certificate stating that the first step is completed. 
At least two lessons each week are given; but drawing can be en- 
gaged in at any time when a pupil is not otherwise engaged. All 
must draw. 

''At our training school, June, 1888, lessons in clay modelling were 
given and will be introduced this year. Ten lessons in carpentry and 
several lessons in budding and grafting. 

•' By our State law any city voting $5,000 receives a like amount, 
and $1,000 was formerly given to small districts raising $1,000. This 
was later repealed making it $500. 

'• For the $500 voted by our district we received $500 from the State. 
Our taxpayers voted the same sum this year and willingly, showing 
that public sentiment favors the work. An exhibition of work done 
was held in March last and for two days hundreds of people exam- 
ined the work. 

" It is impossible for me to tell you how this creative and construc- 
tive training enters into other school work. Our teachers have made 
some of the handsomest charts, maps and pieces of school apparatus 
that I ever saw. We are not trying to teach trades, but we are trying 
to train the hand and eye. Penmanship properly belongs to this 
branch of work and has been added to it by us. Samples of work are 
at your disposal."' 



206 liEPOKT OF THE 



XVI. NEW YORK. 

1. Albany High School. 

A special Cvimmittee appointed to investigate and report as to the 
advisability of introducing manual training into the public schools oi' 
Albany, recommended and the board adopted the following resolu- 
tions in October, :18S7 : 

'• Resolved^ Ttiat it is expedient and advisable that manual train- 
ing l)e added as a part of the course of instruction in our public schools. 

'* Resolved^ That for the purpose of giving the new system a fair 
trial in the most economical manner possible, one of the rooms in the 
basement of the high school buildins; be fitted up as a wood-working 
shop ; that a competent instructor be employed to teach the boys in 
attendance at the high school in the proper use of wood working tools 
for a period of one year, the total cost not exceeding $1,500.'' 

Pursuant to these resolutions the appropriation was duly made, the 
workshop fitted up, and in January, 1888, the classes w^ere organized 
and the course opened. 

The shop was furnished with twelve double work benches, giving 
ample space for classes, or divisions, of twenty-four boys each. 
Twenty-four kits of tools were provided, each consisting of the fol 
lowing : 

oden jack-plane, 2 gauges, 1^ and | in., 

in.. 



1 wooden jack-plane. 


2 gauges, 1^ and | in.. 


1 Bailey iron fore plane, 


6 socket chisels, ^ to 1 


1 Bailey block-plane, 


1 oil stone, 


1 try square, 


1 oil can. 


1 back saw. 


1 hammer. 


1 marking gauge, 


1 two-foot rule, 


1 mortice gauge. 


1 brace. 


1 sliding T level. 


1 mallet, 


1 screw driver, 


1 cutter board. 


1 pair winged dividers, 


1 duster. 


5 auger bits, i to ^ in.. 





" The following tools for general use were also furnished : counter 
sink, brad-awls, files, gimlet bits, four cross cut saws, four rip- saw?, 
one set of numbers and letters to mark and distinguish each pupil's 
work, one dozen iron hand clamps, braes stencil to mark aprons and 
hooks, six saw benches, a grindstone and a saw clamp. 

" A lavatory of twelve basins and ample toweling permits each di- 
vision to wash and dry hands in a moment, while each pupil provides 



I^yDUSTRiAL Education Commission. 207 

himself with a long work-apron to protect his clothing while at the 
bench. 

'•The cost of fitting and furnishing the shop was as follows: 

"Twelve double work benches $156 00 

Tools . 251 15 

Materials 14 41 

Lavatory 140 10 

Carpenter and painting bills . 23 00 



$584 m 



" The special teacher is paid $800 a year. It is estimated that ma 
terials, tools and supplies of all kinds will not cost more than $200 a 
year, so that the running expenses of this shop, giving instruction to 
250 boys, will be about $1,000 a year. It is a noteworthy fact that in 
five months the breakage amounted to just twenty-four cents. A 
more extended plant reaching out into metal working, forging, lathe- 
work, molding and similar lines, will require additional expenditure. 

" The shop was opened for class work in Februrry. The boys of the 
first and second years were required to join in this work, but those of 
the two upper classes were permitted to volunteer. Much to the sur- 
prise of the teachers, evfery boy in the school announced his desire 
to take the new course, and before many weeks had elapsed the 
senior boys, conscious that their time was limited to the few weeks of 
school left before their graduation, formed a special class to take les- 
ions after school hours and on Saturdays, thus giving the strongest 
evidence of their high appreciation of the chance offered them of get- 
ting even a brief course in manual training. 

''The course of procedure in instruction is briefly this: The drawing 
teacher exhibits an object to the class ; the pupils make a working 
drawing from the object, carry the latter to the shop and from it re- 
produce the object in wood. Of course this is preceded by a sufiicient 
number of lessons in the use of tools to enable the pupils to work 
readily and intelligently. Principles of construction are taught, as 
well as the most general use of tools. Nothing is made for use or for 
sale. Some specimens of work are kept to illustrate the work of the 
shop ; the rest are either used over in the preliminary course iu the 
use of tools, or are broken up and destroyed. 

*' From our brief experience we believe that it is established that 
manual training is legitimate educational work in our schools; that 
the tendency is to keep boys longer in school; that its effect is to 
round out the development of the pupil ; that it promotes good order 
and discipline ; that it has a moral force, and that it dignifies manual 
labor by removing false notions of degradations." 

The report of the principal of the high school states : 

" The most signal departure of the year was the establishment of 



208 Report of the 

the manual training department. On the first of February, 1888, the 
large, well lighted play -room of the boys' gymnasium was ready, with 
its twenty-four v/ell-equipped benches, to receive the first class in 
manual training. Work in this department was required of all the 
boys in the two lower classes, but was made voluntary in the two 
upper classes, in order that the experiment might not at the outset be 
complicated by any opposition or antagonism from those whom it was 
established to benefit. The result was that within one week almost 
every boy of the entire two hundred was enrolled in one of the man- 
ual divisions. By a careful adjustment of our programme of daily 
recitations, I was able to give to each boy two recitation hours per 
week at the bench without interference with other recitations. By 
this arrangement also every bench was occupied almost every avail- 
able hour of the week. 

"I think no more time could profitably be devoted to this branch 
than is now given, without detriment to other departments. Indeed, 
few subjects taught in the school receive more than the equivalent of 
two hours per week during the entire four years. I believe the board 
has adopted the true policy in this matter — not to turn our high school 
into a trades' school, but to add (what the term signifies) hand train- 
ing to that of mind-training. As certain lines of study have been 
found best fitted for mental training, so the line of work selected for 
this new department seems best fitted to develop manual skill. 

"Of course the whole subject of ujanual training as related to our 
public schools is still in its infancy, but 1 hope to see it so far ex- 
tended as to include instruction to the girls as well as to the boys. A 
heginning could certainly be made with very little expense. Should 
it be deemed advisable to add instruction in metal work to that in 
wood work for the boys, we have a room in the building that could 
easily be arranged for the purpose." 

The following is a partial schedule of the work thus far laid out for 
this department : 

Xo. 1. Hammer and planes. 

2. Planing and sawing. 

3. Housing or gaining out. 

4. Housing or gaining angles. 
6. Housing or gaining angles. 

6. Housing or gaining angles. 

7. Boring square, perpendicular and horizontal. 

8. Boring angles. 

9. Square butt-joint, nailing exercise. . - 

10. Square butt-joint, toe nailing exercise. 

11. Square butt-joint, housed and glued. 

12. Square butt boxed and glued. 

13. Halving at corners, nailed and glued. 

14. Halving at corners and glued. 

15. Halving at centers and glued. 

16. Slip mortise and tenon. 

17. Half blind, slip mortise and tenon, glued. 



Industrial Education Commission. 209 

18. Mortise and tenon. 

19. Blind mortise and tenon. 

20. Corner mortise and tenon. 

21. Double slip-mortise and tenon. 

22. Double mortise and tenon. 

23. Miter square edge nailed and glued. 

24. Miter square flat nailed and glued. 

25. Half miter and half square. 

26. Half miter and half square, slip-mortise and tenon. 

27. Half dovetail corner. 

28. Half dovetail center. 

29. Half dovetail and half square. 

30. Dovetail, one tenon. 

31. Dovetail, one tenon reverse. 

32. Dovetail butt-joint. 

33. Dovetail brace-joint. 

34. Dovetail two tenons. 

35. Dovetail three tenons. 

36. Dovetail three tenons and halved. 

37. Dovetail three tenons half-blind. 

38. Dovetail three tenons half-blind. 

39. Double dovetailing two tenons. 

40. Double dovetailing two tenons half-blind. 

41. Double dovetailing two tenons blind. 

42. Doweling square butt. 

43. Doweling square butt halved. 

44. Doweling square butt blind. 

45. Kerfing and bending. 

46. Splicing and scarfing. 

2. Pratt Institute. 

The Pratt Institute was established after many years' study on the 
part of its founder, Mr. Charles Pratt, of Brooklyn. 

Land was purchased in 1884, and the construction of buildings car- 
ried on through 1887. May 19, 1887, the charter was granted with 
power to confer degrees. 

Its aims and methods are thus set forth in a circular of information 
issued in 1888 : " Its object is to promote manual and industrial edu- 
cation, and to supplement this latter by advanced work in science 
and art. 

It is now generally recognized that manual training is an important 
and necessary adjunct to the education of the schools, and that mind 
and eye and hand must together be trained in order to secure sym- 
metrical development. Manual training aims at the broadest, most 
liberal education. While developing and strengthening the physical 
powers, it also renders more active and acute the intellectual faculties, 
thus enabling the pupil to acquire with greater readiness, and to use 
more advantageously, the literary education which should go hand in 
hand with the manual. 

The need of manual training as a developing power is scarcely less 
than that of industrial education — such education as shall best enable 
14 Ed. Com. 



210 Report of the 

men and women to earn their own living by applied knowledge and 
the skilful use of their hands in the various productive industries. 
Accordingly, the institute seeks to provide facilities by which those 
wishing to engage in mechanical or artistic pursuits may acquire a 
thorough theoretic and practical knowledge thereof, or may perfect 
themselves in that occupation in which they are already engaged. 

Aims. 

The two-fold aim of the institute is based on an appreciation of the 
dignity as well as the value of intelligent handicraft and skilled 
manual labor. It endeavors to give opportunities for complete and 
harmonious education, seeking at the same time to establish a system 
of instruction whereby habits of thinking may be inculcated, to de- 
velop those qualities which produce a spirit of self-reliance, and to 
teach that personal ch,aracter is of greater consequence, than material 
productions. 

It offers its advantages to those only who propose to do their own 
part earnestly and well. Its aim is to aid those who are willing to 
aid themselves. Its classes, workshops, library, reading room and 
museum are for this purpose, and while tuition is required, yet it 
will be the endeavor to make possible by some means consistent 
with self-helpfulness and self-respect the admission of every worthy 
applicant. 

The work of the institute is divided into departments, with a faculty 
organization, and the best talent obtainable will be placed in charge 
of each department. 

It should be remembered that the institute has but just begun the 
work which it hopes to accomplish. The comprehensive nature of its 
buildings and appliances, the complimentary notices of the press, the 
patronage in so short a time of its more than five hundred students, 
should mislead no one into expecting more than can in the nature of 
things be realized. Many departments of perhaps equal importance 
with those already in progress have not been attempted ; some of 
those now in operation are by no means complete. A beginning has 
been made, and, as is believed, in such a direction, that a natural and 
constant growth may reasonably be expected. 

Art and Design. 

Drawing is fundamental ; it is the basis of all the constructive in- 
dustries, all pictorial art and decorative design. It is the language 
by which a true idea of the form, the appearance, and the decoration 
of an object is conveyed from one person to another. It is the one 
universal language, and its importance to the designer and artisan is 
only comparable with reading and writing. Its applications are various 
and almost innumerable ; but the subject, considered as a whole, may 



Industrial Education Commission. 211 

be regarded as embracing three divisions, which include all the con- 
structive, representative, and decorative arts, namely : 

Construction. — Drawing as applied in industrial construction and 
the making of objects. 

Representation. — Drawing as applied in representing the appear- 
ance of objects and of nature. 

Decoration. — Drawing as applied in ornamentation. 

The purpose of this department is to give thorough and systematic 
training in each of these divisions, which may be specialized under 
the heads of free hand, mechanical and architectural drawing, color, 
clay -modeling, design, wood-carving, etc. 

Courses of Study, 
Each course of study in this school is divided into three grades, ten 
acceptable studies or drawings being required in each. 
Grade A of the general course in free-hand drawing is as follows : 

1. Blocking in from casts, several drawings. 

2. Appearance of cylindrical and rectangular objects. 

3. Group of objects. 

4. Corner of a room, building or miscellaneous group. 

5. 6, 7. Studies in light and shade from casts and still life. 

8. Harmony of color. 

9. Historic ornament. 

10. Principles of ornament and applied design. 

Grade B includes work in design, blocking in and shading the head 
and figure from casts, drawings of drapery, and studies in color from 
still life. 

Grade C will embrace advanced work from the antique, painting, 
and studies from life. 

Thorough knowledge of free-hand drawing will be insisted upon 
before pupils will be admitted to advanced classes, as it is absolutely 
indispensable to good work. Students will not be allowed to omit 
any part of a course of study unless they can pass satisfactory ex- 
aminations. Upon completing Grade A of the general course, those 
showing special ability in any direction will be advised as to their 
future work. 

The special courses in design, architectural and mechanical drawing 
are graded in a way similar to that of the general art course, and 
pupils may enter any of these according to individual ability or fitness. 

All students must attend lectures on perspective, historic, ornament, 
harmony of color, design, etc., according to course of stndy, and must 
take full notes. 

Applicants must give evidence of a certain amount of ability in the 
line of work they wish to pursue in order to gain admittance to the 
school, and must pass an examination upon the work of one grade 
before entering another. 



.212 Report of the 

The free-hand, architectural and mechanical drawing is of the most 
practical and systematic character, showing a constant growth and 
development into the three fundamental divisions of drawing. 

Evening classes have also been organized and are '' intended to 
meet the needs of a large class of people, who, although employed 
during the day, yet desire to gain a thorough knowledge of drawing, 
realizing that it lies at the foundation of all industrial pursuits. 

The rooms are admirably arranged for evening work, and, being 
lighted by electricity, students can work with as much comfort in the 
evening as during the day." 

The design of the school is to make each course of study so 
thorough that pupils of aptitude and perseverance, who successfully 
complete the work of any department, may possess such information 
in theory and practice as may be made of practical use. To this end 
normal classes for those wishing to study drawing with the idea of 
becoming teachers, classes in clay-modeling, wood-carving, etc., will 
be organized as applications are received, and each of the other 
courses in both the day and evening classes will be developed to the 
fullest possible extent. 

The first class in the '' School of Art and Design," organized in Oc- 
tober, 1887, numbered twelve — in March " the whole enrolment for 
day classes was 133 and for evening classes 174, a total of 307. 

Manual Trainikg. 

Instruction in the department of mechanic arts is designed for three 
distinct classes of pupils : First, members of the regular three years' 
course, who, in connection with their literary work, will be given 
courses in wood and iron, work — -joinery, patternmaking, wood- turn- 
ing, molding, casting, forging, etc. Second, pupils in other schools 
who wish to supplement their studies with some kind of manual work. 
Third, those who are employed during the day, but wish to join even- 
ing classes in order to learn some mechanic trade, or to perfect them- 
selves in the trade in which they are engaged. 

Although much of the work of the institute is designed to be sup- 
plemental to that of other institutions, yet it has been thought wise to 
establish for boys, a full three years' course, to include free-hand and 
mechanical drawing, and shop- practice, at the same time giving op- 
portunity for the studies of a thorough English education. 

In outline, the course is as follows : An average of one hour per day 
of free-hand and mechanical drawing, two hours of shop-practice — tool 
and machine work in wood and metals — and three hours daily in the 
class room, to be devoted to mathematics — algebra, geometry and 
trigonometry; science — physiology,physics, chemistry, etc. ; English — 
history, literature, political science, etc. 

Applicants for admission to this course are required to pass exami- 



Industrial Education Commission. 213 

nation in arithmetic (entire), geography, United States history, gram- 
mar and composition. 

Buildings. 

The buildings of this department cover a ground space about 250 x 
100 feet, are constructed of brick with blue stone trimmings, and vary 
from one to four stories in height. A bridge from the third story con- 
nects them with the second story of the main building. 

In the basement is the boiler room, containing two boilers of 100 
horse power each, which furnish steam for heating the entire group of 
buildings, and supply power for the engines, elevators, electric lights, 
fire, pumps, etc. 

In the engine room adjoining is a Harris Corliss engine of 40 horse 
power to operate the machinery of the shops, and an Armington & 
Sims engine to run the dynamo, which has a capacity of 500 sixteen- 
candle power incandescent lamps. The engines, the generation of 
steam and electricity, and their connections with the buildings, have 
been so arranged as to offer a means of instruction to the pupils. The 
remainder of the basement is used for storage, etc. 

On the south side of the first floor of these buildings is the forge 
room, 73x29 feet and 18 feet high, provided with ventilating sky- 
lights. The room is planned to accommodate thirty-six pupils, and 
forges, anvils, etc., are provided for that number. A system of pipes 
furnishes blast to the forges, and an exhaust fan serves to carry away 
fumes and smoke. 

Adjoining this room on the north is the foundry, 66 x 29 feet, with an 
18-foot ceiling. Two large skylights are built in the roof, giving good 
light and abundant ventilation. It will be furnished with a cupola of 
sufficient size to supply the shop with castings. 

In the rear of the forge, foundry and engine rooms are large accom- 
modations for lockers, wash-rooms, store-rooms, etc. 

At the north end of the first floor is a room 92x 37 feet designed for 
metal- working. It is fitted with sufficient bench room for forty- eight 
vises, also a number of engine and drilling lathes for iron work, and a 
complete set of standard typical machines is contemplated. 

The main wood- working room, at the north end of the second floor, 
is 92 X 37 feet, and is furnished with about 150 feet of wall bench, and 
thirty-six single benches, supplied with the latest and most improved 
tools. It contains a number wood -turning lathes, a large pattern- 
maker's lathe, buzz-planer, surfacer, etc. 

The lumber and tool rooms are adjacent to this room. 

It is intended that the third floor of this building shall be used for 
laboratories and class rooms, and the fourth for advanced work in 
metals, engraving. 

North of the mechanic arts building is a building designed for the 
department of building trades. It is 103 x 95 feet, and is built with 
a clear story, the ceiling being about thirty feet high. 



214 Report of the 

The work in this department was commenced February 20, 1888, 
with pupils in bricklaying, modeling, stone-carving and plumbing. 
Instruction is given three evenings of each week, from 7.30 to 9.30 
o'clock. 

Methods. 

In bricklaying, pupils are first taught to handle the trowel and 
spread mortar properly. They are then put to work upon eight-inch 
walls until they can carry the corners up plumb, and lay the courses 
level. Particular care is taken that the joints shall be thoroughly 
stuck and pointed. When the student can do this neatly and well he 
is taught the construction of arches, etc. 

In stone-carving, pupils are drilled upon working out forms, illus- 
trating the different styles of ornament in architecture. All are re- 
quired to sketch designs and model them in clay before cutting them 
in stone. This course is follow^ed in order to develop any talent which 
a pupil may have, and in order to produce carvers whose work shall 
be original and artistic. 

In the plumbing section, benches completely equipped with tools 
have been provided for fit ty-four pupils. The course of study includes 
the making of lead seams, all kinds of wiped joints and sand bends, 
drill in the working of sheet lead, in the erection of sewer pipes, etc. 
Special attention is given to the sanitary aspects of plumbing, and 
the course of instruction will be such as to insure an understanding, 
on the student's part, of the scientific principles of drainage, sewerage 
and ventilation, together with ability to make practical application of 
the same in the most thorough manner. 

An important feature of the institute is its lecture courses. It is 
intended that these shall bear directly upon the w^ork of the institute 
in all its phases, and shall thus include practical instruction upon 
those matters which pertain to right modes of living, the problems of 
political and social life, domestic economy, sanitary science, literary 
culture, ethics, etc. While many of these courses may be given as a 
part of the regular work of the institute to pupils only, yet many 
others will be so arranged as to meet the wants of those not otherwise 
connected with the institute, but who wish the opportunity to obtain 
systematic instruction upon subjects of interest and importance. 

3. Cornell University. 

April 27, 1865, the Legislature of New York incorporated the Cor- 
nell University in accordance with the National Land Grant Act of 
1862. In connection with the university the " Sibley College of Me- 
chanical Engineering and the Mechanic Arts " was founded and 
endowed in 1870. 

This college is divided into three principal departments : That of 



Industrial Education Commission. 215 

mechanical engineering, including a laboratory in which experimental 
work and investigations are conducted ; a department of mechanic 
arts, or shop work; and a department of drawing and machine de- 
sign. 

Regular Course. 

It is intended by the trustees of the university to be made not only 
a school of arts and trades, but a college of mechanical engineering 
also, in which schools of the mechanic arts and. of the various branches 
of mechanical engineering shall be developed, as rapidly and exten- 
sively as the means placed at the disposal of the trustees of the uni- 
versity, and a demand for advanced and complete courses of instruc- 
tion, shall allow. 

Admission. 

Candidates for admission must be at least sixteen years of age, and 
must pass examination in English ; geography, political and physical ; 
physiology and hygiene ; arithmetic, plane geometry, algebra. 

In place of these examinations certain certificates or diplomas are 
received, as follows : 

1. Certi^cates issued by the Superintendent of Public Instruction of 
the State of New York, and diplomas issued by those academies and 
high schools of the State of New York whose requirements for gradu- 
ation have been approved by the faculty, and whose course of study 
requires physiology and plane geometry, are accepted in place of the 
examinations in all the subjects named above except algebra. 

2. Diplomas issued by the regents to graduates from the high schools 
and academies of the State of New York, and diplomas issued by the 
State normal schools of the State of New York, are accepted in place 
of the examinations in all the subjects named above. 

The fee for tuition is $25 a term. 

Students taking work in Sibley College courses are charged $5 per 
term for materials and extra expenses. 

I. Department of Mechanical Engineering. 

The department of mechanical engineering is divided into two prin- 
cipal sections : That of theoretical engineering and that of experi- 
mental engi^eering, or the mechanical laboratory. 

(1) Section of Theoretical Engineering. — The lecture-room course 
of instruction consists of the study, by text-book and lecture, of the 
materials used in mechanical engineering ; the valuable qualities of 
these materials being exhibited in the mechanical laboratory by the 
use of the various kinds or testing machines, as well as by examina- 
tion of specimens of all the most familiar grades, of which samples are 
seen in the cases of the museums and lecture rooms. The theory of 
strength of materials is here applied, and the effects of modifying con- 
ditions — such as variation of temperature, frequency and period of 



216 Keport of the 

strain, method of application of stress — are illustrated. This course of 
study is followed, or accompanied, by instruction in the science of pure 
mechanism or kinematics, which traces motions of connected parts, 
without reference to the causes of such motion, or to the work done, or 
the energy transmitted. This study is conducted largely in the draw- 
ing rooms, where the successive positions of moving parts can be laid 
down on paper. It is illustrated, in some directions, by the set of 
kinematic models known as the Reuleaux models, a complete collec- 
tion of which is found in the museums of Sibley College. 

The study of machine design succeeds that of pure mechanism, just 
described. This study also is largely conducted in the drawingrooms, 
and is directed by an instructor familiar, practically as well as theoreti- 
cally, with the designing and proportioning of machinery. 

The closing work of the course consists of the study, by text- book 
and lecture, of the theory of the steam engine and other motors. The 
last term of the regular four-year course is devoted largely to the prepa- 
ration of a graduating thesis, in which the student is expected to exhibit 
something of the working power and the knowledge gained during his 
course. A graduating piece is demanded, also, of each student, both 
in the drawingroom and the workshop, which shall show proficiency 
in those departments. 

(2) Section of Experimental Engineering^ or Mechanical Lalora- 
tory Instruction. — The work in this department will be conducted by 
an instructor familiar with its apparatus and with the best methods of 
work, and who will plan a systematic course of instruction intended to 
give the student not only skill in the use of apparatus of exact meas- 
urement, but to teach him also the best methods of research, and to 
give him a good idea of the most effective methods of planning and of 
prosecuting investigations, with a view to securing fruitfulness of result 
with minimum expenditure of time and money. 

II. Department of Mechanic Arts, or Shopwork. 

The aim of the instruction in this, the department of practical me- 
chanics and machine construction, is to make the student, as far as 
time will permit, acquainted with the most approved methods of con- 
struction of machinery. 

(1) Section of Woodworking and Patternmaking. — This course 
begins with a series of exercises in woodwork, each of which is in- 
tended to give the student familiarity with a certain application of a 
certain tool ; and the course of exercises, as a whole, is expected to 
enable the industrious, conscientious, and painstaking student easily 
and exactly to perform any ordinary operation familiar to the car- 
penter, the joiner, and the patternmaker. Time permitting, these 
prescribed exercises are followed by practice in making members of 
structures, joints, small complete structures, patterns, their core 



Industrial Education Commission. 217 

boxes, and other constructions in wood. Particular attention is paid 
to the details of patternmaking. 

(2) Section of Forging^ Molding^ and Foundry work. — These courses 
are expected not only to give the student a knowledge of the methods 
of the blacksmith and the molder, but to teach him also how to use 
the tools and to give him that manual skill in the handling of tools 
which will permit him to enter the machine shop, and there quickly 
to acquire familiarity and skill in the manipulation of the metals, and 
in the management of both hand and machine tools, as used in the 
working of such metals. 

(3) Section of Iron working. — The instruction in the machine shop, 
as in the foundry and the forge, is intended to be carried on in sub- 
stantially the same manner as in the woodworking course, beginning 
by a series of graded exercises, which give the student familiarity 
with the tools of the craft and with the operations for the perform- 
ance of which they are particularly designed, and concluding by 
practice in the construction of parts of machinery, and, time permit- 
ting, in the building of complete machines which may have a market 
value. 

III. Department of Industrial Drawing and Art. 

(1) Section of Free-hand Drawing and Art. — Instruction in this 
department begins with free-hand drawing, which is taught by means 
of lectures and general exercises from the blackboard from flat copies 
and from models. The work embraces a thorough training of the 
hand and eye in outline drawing, elementary perspective, model and 
object drawing, drawing from casts, and sketching from nature. 

The course in free-hand drawing is followed by instruction in indus- 
trial art, in designating for textiles and ceramics, in modeling, and in 
other advanced studies introductory to the study of fine art. 

(2) Section of Mechanical Drawing. — The course of instruction in 
mechanical drawing is progressive, trom machine-sketching and 
geometrical drawing to designing of machinery and making complete 
working drawings. 

The course begins with free-hand drawing, as above, and in the lat- 
ter part of this work considerable time is expected to be given to the 
sketching of parts of machines and of trains of mechanism, and later 
of working machines. The use of drawing instruments is next taught, 
and after the student has acquired some knowledge of descriptive ge- 
ometry and the allied branches, the methods of work in the drawing 
rooms of workshops and manufacturing establishments are learned. 
Line drawing, tracing and blue printing, the conventional colors, ge- 
ometrical constructions, projections, and other important details of the 
draughtman's work are practiced until the student has acquired pro- 
ficiency. 

The advanced instruction given the upper classes includes the trac- 



218 Keport of the 

ing of curves and cams, the study of kinematics on the drawing boards, 
tracing the motions of detail mechanism and the kinematic relations 
of connected parts. This part of the work is accompanied by lecture 
room instruction and the study of the text-book, the instructors in the 
drawing rooms being assisted by the lecture room instructor, who is a 
specialist in this branch. The concluding part of the course embraces 
a similar method of teaching machine design, the lecture room and 
drawing room work being correlated in the same manner as in kine- 
matics or mechanism. The course concludes, when time allows, by 
the designing of complete machines, as of the steam engine or other 
motor, or of some important special type of machine. 

Industrial A^^t. — A four years' course of instruction in industrial 
art is arranged for students having a talent for such work, and desir- 
ing to devote their whole time to this subject. No degree is conferred, 
but a certificate of proficiency may be given at the end of the course. 

The mechanical engineering course, in detail, is as follows (the 
figures after subjects indicate the number of hours per week) : 

Freshman Year. 

Fall Term. French or German, 5; algebra, 5; rhetoric, 2; free-hand drawing, 3; 
shop-work, 2 ; drill, 2. 

Winter Term. French or German, 5 ; trigonometry, 5 ; rhetoric, 2 : free-hand draw- 
ing and machine sketching, 3 ; shop-work, 2. 

Spriyig Term. French or German, 5 ; theory of equations, 2 ; projective geometry 
and conic sections, 3 ; instrumental drawing, 3 ; rhetoric, 2 ; drill, 2 ; 
shop-work, 2 : drill, 2. 

8ophomor€ Year. 

Fall Term. Analytical geometry, 5 ; descriptive geometry, 3 ; experimental me- 
chanics and heat, 3 ; chemistry, lectures, 4 ; shop-work, 3 ; drill, 2. 

Winter Term. Differential calculus, 5 ; electricity and magnetism, 3 : chemistry, 
lectures, 4 ; descriptive geometry, 3 ; shop-work, 3. 

Spring Terrn. Integral calculus, 5 ; acoustics and optics, 3 ; descriptive geometry, 
3 ; chemistry, laboratory, 4; shop-work, 3 ; drill, 2. 

Junior Year. 

Fall Term. Mechanics of engineering, 5 ; kinematics, 5 ; designing and drawing, 
2 ; physical laboratory, 2 ; chemistry, laboratory, 4 ; shop-work, 2. 

Winter Term. ISIechanics of engineering, 5 ; materials of engineering and mechan- 
ical laboratory work, 6 ; physical laboratory, 2 ; designing and 
drawing, 2 ; shop-work. 3. 

Spring Term. Mechanics of engineering, 5 ; physical laboratory, 2 ; mechanical 
laboratory, 2 ; designing and drawing, 2 ; machine design, 2 ; shop- 
work, 3. 

Senior Year. 

Fall Term. Steam engine and other motors, 5 ; physical laboratory, 2 ; mechan- 
ical laboratory, 2 : designing and drawing, 3 ; machine design, 3; 
shop-Avork, 3. 



Industrial Education Commission. 219 

Winter Term. Steam engine and motors, 5 ; physical laboratory, 2 ; mechanical 
laboratory, 2 ; machine design, 3 ; designing and drawing, 3 ; shop- 
work, 3 ; military science, 2. 

Spring Term. Thesis, designing and drawing, mechanical laboratory investiga- 
tions, shop-work (time divided optionally, but subject to approval 
of the head of the department*), 12 ; elective, 3 to 6. 

Senior Year. 

Fall Term. Physics, lectures and laboratory work (testing of instruments and 
determination of constants), 6 ; steam engine and other motors, 5 ; 
mechanical laboratory, 2 ; designing and drawing, 3 ; machine de- 
sign, 3. 
Winter Term. Physics, lectures and laboratory work (dynamo machines and elec- 
tric motors, tests of efficiency), 6 ; steam engines and motors, 5 ; 
mechanical laboratory, 2 ; designing and drawing, 3 ; military 
science, 2. 

Spring Term,. Physics, lectures and laboratory work, photometry, efficiency tests 
of electric lamps, tests of telegraphic instruments, lines and cables, 
5 ; thesis (laboratory work, reading, etc, in connection with prepa- 
ration of thesis), 12. 

Course in Industrial Art. 
Freshynan Year. 

Fall Term.. French or German, 5 ; algebra, 5 ; rhetoric, 2 ; outline drawing, 3 ; 
drill, 2. 

Winter Term. French or German, 5 ; trigonometry, 5 ; rhetoric, 2 ; outline and or- 
namental drawing, 3. 

Spring Term. Drawing, from casts and figures, 3 ; analytical geometry, 5 ; instru- 
mental drawing, 4 ; botany, 3 ; theory of color, 1 ; drill, 2. 

Sophotnore Year. 

Fall Term. Calculus, 5 ; descriptive geometry, 3 ; chemistry, 3 ; experimental 
mechanics and heat, 3 ; composition, 1 ; studies in anatomy, 1 ; 
drill, 2. 

Winter Ter'in. Cast and figure drawing, 4 ; electricity and magnetism, 3 ; chem- 
istry, 3 ; elementary coloring, 1 ; principles of design, 3 ; descrip- 
tive geometry, 3. 

Spring Term. Plant forms, 2 : coloring, 3 ; modeling and potter's wheel, 3 ; acous- 
tics and optics, 3 ; free-hand drawing, 3 ; descriptive geometry, 3 ; 
drill, 2. 

Junior Year. 

Fall Term. .Esthetics, 2 ; drawing, 4 ; molding and modeling, 4 ; geology, 3 j 
physiology, 3 ; coloring and designing, 1. 

Winter Term. History of fine arts, 1 ; coloring, 4; phychology, 3 ; descriptive as- 
tronomy, 3 ; drawing from casts, 4. 

*This term is devoted largely to the preparation of a thesis which must be ap- 
proved by the director and by the committee on thesis. If not otherwise arranged- 
the student will take shopwork, laboratory work, and drawing, 3 each. 

The freshman, sophomore, and junior years are identical with the course in me- 
chanical engineering ; in the senior year, laboratory work is increased, the time be- 
ing taken from that devoted to shoi>-work. 



220 Report of the 

Spring Term. Wood-working, 2; photography, 2 ; history of art, 2 ; building ma- 
terials and construction, 3 ; logic, 3 ; drawing from nature, decora- 
tion and coloring, 4. 

Senior Year, 

Fall Term. Stereotomy, 3; English literature, 3; history of industrial arts, 2; 
modeling in clay, 2 ; wood-carving, 2 ; designing in color, 3. 

Winter Term. History of art, 3 ; coloring from nature, 2 ; etching, 3 ; designing, 5 ; 
military science, 2. 

Spring Term. Designing in form and color, 4 ; working stone, 2 ; painting from 
nature, 3 ; graduating work and thesis. 

Equipment. 

The mechanical laboratory, which is the department of demonstration and exper- 
imental research of Sibley College, and in which not only instruction but investiga- 
tion is conducted, is located in the annex of Sibley College, in several rooms of good 
height, well lighted on all sides, and carefully fitted up for the purpose for which 
they are designed. It occupies the whole lower floor, a space of one hundred and fifty 
feet long, by forty feet wide. It is supplied with the apparatus of experimental 
work in the determination of the power and efficiency of the several motors, in- 
cluding steam engines, and the turbine driving the machinery of the establish- 
ment ; with boiler-testing plant and instruments ; and with a number of machines 
for testing lubricants and the strength of metals. Among these is the " autographic 
testing machine," which produces an autographic record of the results of the test of 
any metal which may be placed within its jaws, securing exact measures of the 
strength, the ductility, the elasticity, the resilience or shock-resisting power, the 
elastic limit, etc., of the material. Several steam engines and boilers, air and gas 
engines, several kinds of dynamometers, lubricant-testing machines, standard 
pressure-gauges, and other apparatus and instruments of precision employed by the 
engineer in such researches as he is called upon, in the course of his professional 
Tvork, to make, are all collected here. 

The museums and collections of this college are of exceptional ex- 
tent, value*, and interest. 

The two principal rooms on the first floor of the main building are devoted to the 
purposes of a museum of illustrative apparatus, machinery, products of the manu_ 
facturing industries, and collections exhibiting processes and methods of manufac- 
ture, new inventions, the groAvth of standard forms of motors, and other collec- 
tions of value in the courses of technical instruction given in the college. In the 
west museum are placed the Reuleaux collection of models of kinematic devices and 
movements, which is, so far as known, the only complete collection on this conti- 
nent, and is one of the very few in the world. Besides these are the Schroeder and 
other models, exhibiting the forms and proportions of parts of machinery, the con- 
struction of steam engines and other machines, and methods of making connections. 
In the east museum are placed a large number of samples of machines constructed 
by the best makers, to illustrate their special forms and methods of manufacture. 
Among these are several beautifully-finished samples of steam pumps, "sectioned " 
to exhibit their internal construction and arrangement, steam-boiler injectors simi- 
larly divided, governors for steam engines, water-wheels, and other motors, devices 
for lubrication, shafting and pulleys, couplings, and other apparatus for the transmis- 
sion of power, both by shafting and by wire-rope transmission. The lecture-rooms 
of the Sibley College, each being devoted to a specified line of instruction and list of 
subjects, are each supplied with a collection of materials, of drawings, and of models 
and machines, especially adapted to the wants of the lecturer in each subject. Thus, 
the lecture-room of the instructor in •' Materials of Engineering " contains a fine col- 
lection of samples of all the metals in common use in the arts, with samples of ores 
and of special intermediate products, exhibiting the processes of reduction and 



Industrial Education Commission. 221 

manufacture. Among these are specimens of the whole range of copper-tin and 
copper-zinc alloys, and of the "kalchoids" produced by their mixture, such as were 
the subjects of investigations made by the Committee on Alloys of the United States 
Board appointed by President Grant by authority of Congress, in the year 1875. The 
collection is supplemented by other alloys produced later by the director, and is one 
which has no known superior, and is perhaps unequaled. The course in machine 
design is illustrated by the standard forms of parts of machinery. The course of 
instruction in mechanical engineering is illustrated by a fine collection of steam en- 
gines of various well-known types, gas and vapor engines, water-wheels, and other 
motors, models and drawings of every standard or historical form of prime mover, 
of parts of machines, and of completed machinery. 

The collections of the department of drawing include a large variety of studies of 
natural and conventional forms, shaded and in outline, geometrical models, casts 
and illustrations of historical ornament. 

The v^^orkshops are supplied with every needed kind of machine or tool, includ- 
ing lathes, of our OT\^n and other makes, and hand and bench tools sufficient to meet 
the wants of over one hundred students of the first year, in woodworking ; in the 
foundry and forge all needed tools for a class of eighty in the second year ; in the 
machine shop, lathes from the best builders, and others made in the University 
shops, planes, drills, milling machines, and a great variety of special and hand-tools, 
which are sufficient to work a class of sixty or seventy of the third year, and fifty 
or sixty seniors. 

The department of experimental engineering possesses experimental engines and 
boilers, and other motors, such as air and gas engines, and is well supplied with 
testing machines in considerable variety, as well as all the apparatus required, as 
indicators, dynamometers, etc., for determining the efficiency of engines. Each of 
the several rooms on the first floor of the Sibley College annex is a museum of ap- 
paratus. 



4. Jamesto^wn Public Schools. 

The following account is taken from Superintendent Love's work, 
entitled " Industrial Education.'' 

" After several years of consideration as to adopting manual training 
in the schools, in the fall of '74 it was determined to make a beginning 
by opening a printing office. A press, type and fixtures, costing $125, 
were purchased— money from the ' fund ' — and set up in an unoccu- 
pied room on the fourth floor It was placed in charge of the com- 
mercial teacher, who, when a boy, had worked in a printing office. 
Two classes of boys and girls of four each were selected from the 
grammar and high schools to learn to set type. They were given two 
hours or more each week, during the school year. 

"' For two or three years it seemed impossible to add anything more. 
Accident, however, opened the closed door. One day, a boy was sent 
to my office as incorrigible. When he came in with the note from 
his teacher, seeing that he was very angry, I sent him on an errand. 
On his return I told him I wanted a certain article made ; showed him 
the drawing I had made of it. He seemed greatly pleased ; so I told 
him to make a good copy of the drawing, making each line twice as 
long. When finished I said : 

" ' Can you do this work if I give you one hour each day from 
school V 



222 E.EPORT OF THE 

'* ' I am not a member of the school any more,' he replied with tremb- 
ling lips. 

'' ' That is bad, but I think you can return if you desire.' 
^' '^ I would like to return.' 

" ' Then go down and handsomely apologize for your past misconduct ; 
make good promises for the future, and you will get your seat again, 
I have no doubt. Please ask your teacher to come to the office a 
moment.' Arrangements were soon made and the work done, on the 
second trial, quite satisfactorily. Several other cases of disobedience, 
etc., were referred to me and similar employment was given. Some 
of them did their work at home and some at the janitor's bench, in 
his workroom in the basement. 

'' In this unlooked for way, a little furore was created among the 
teachers to have some boys set to work, good boys as well as bad, and 
the girls, too. 

" Some were set collecting specimens of the different kinds of domes- 
tic woods and taught how to prepare them ; others collected land and 
water snails. In the primary schools, little things were conjured up 
for the pupils to do. In one they were engaged in cutting and mak- 
ing pen-wipers of various patterns and with suitable ornamentations ; 
in another, cutting and making picture scrap-books. 

" All these these things made it more evident that something must be 
done towards making a permanent establishment of some of the in- 
dustries in the schools. Gradually sewing was provided for the girls, 
and a work- bench for the boys. Pupils were selected because they 
were good scholars, or good for nothing, or any other good reason pre- 
sented by the class teacher. 

'^ For a year or more this bench has occupied the greater part of the 
day, each boy enjoying the privilege twice a week for about one-half 
the year. They thus learned the use of most of the carpenter's tools, 
beginning with the hammer. 

" The board of education in the spring of '82 subscribed liberally, 
and assisted greatly in other ways to raise a fund with which a shop 
was built, large enough to accommodate four benches and three lathes, 
with a loft for storing away lumber, also to supply all the tools and 
fixtures to put in complete running order. This don^, the shop was 
placed in charge of two young men, and under the general direction 
of the janitor (a good mechanic), one of them gave instruction to 
classes everj^ school hour of the daj^ 

" Since that time changes have been steadily made in every branch 
of the department, all tending to improve and enlarge the methods, 
increase the force of instructors, and add to the number of those re- 
ceiving instruction. Three years ago, two wings were added to the 
high school building, and in the basement are two rooms, one of which 
is used for a sewing room and printing office, and the other for the shop- 
Those rooms are about 28 feet by 37 feet, are well lighted and pleas- 



Industrial Education Commission. 223 

ant, and are supplied with all needed tools, material and instructors, 
and are kept open during all the school hours of the day, four days of 
the week." 

" To-day, January 19, 1887, this much can be said of the department 
of manual training in Jamestown public schools. All the pupils in 
the first six grades, about 1,400 in number, are given lessons daily, or 
at least three or four times a week, in some kind of manual training. 
One hundred and twenty-five of the girls and sixty-five of the boys 
receive lessons in the sewing-room or shop at least twice or three 
times each week, and twenty boys and girls set type in the printing 
oflSce one hour four days of the week." 

The course of instruction in manual training in the different grades 

is as follows : 

/ 

PRIMARY DEPARTMENT. 

First Year — First Grade. 
Writing, on the slate and blackboards ; drawing, lines and angles on the slate ; 
gymnastics, free and marching ; industrial, block building, stringing straws, 
stringing beads and*learning colors, tablet laying, paper folding. 

Second Year — Second Grade. 
Writing ; drawing, lines and angles, and subjects on slate ; gymnastics, free, musi- 
cal and marching ; industrial, stick laying, picture cutting, making scrap books, 
spool work, paper embroidery and braiding. 

Third Year — Third Grade. 
Writing, shorter course, No. 2 ; drawing, review work and inventive ; gymnastics, 
free, musical and marching ; industrial, perforated cardboard embroidery, review 
work, slat plaiting, mat weaving. 

SECOND PRIMARY DEPARTMENT. 

First Year — Fourth Grade. 

Penmanship, tracing book, No. 3 ; drawing, free-hand, on slate and black-board ; 
gymnastics, free exercise and marching ; industrial, slat plaiting, advanced crochet- 
ing, chain stitch, paper folding advanced, perforated card-board embroidery ad- 
vanced. 

Second Year — Fifth Grade. 
Penmanship, tracing book. No. 4; drawing, free-hand and inventive, on slate and 
black-board ; gymnastics, free exercises and marching ; industrial, sewing over and 
over, review work, crocheting, paper folding and mounting. 

Third Year — Sixth Grade. 
Penmanship, shorter course No. 5 ; drawing, primary drawing book No. 1 ; gym- 
nastics, the same as the second year ; industrial, hemming, review work, pease work 
knitting, paper-flower making. 

Grammar Department. 
Junior Grammar Class— Seventh Grade. ^ 

Penmanship ; drawing, free-hand and industrial ; physical culture, exercises in 
gymnasium ; manual training for boys ; to draw lines and lay off distances, use of tlie 
hammer, the saw, the plane ; manual training for girls : plain sewing, running, gath- 
ering, stitching, overcasting, over and over sewing and hemming ; printing, boys 
and girls, 1, learn the letters in the lower case ; 2, also in the upper case ; 3, to 
hold and handle the stick ; 4, to set up and distribute words ; 5, also sentences ; 6, to 
set up and distribute copy. 



224: Report of the 

Middle GramTnar Class — Eighth Grade. 
Penmanship ; drawing, free-hand and industrial ; physical culture, exercises in the 
gymnasium ; manual training for boys, review the work of the last year ; lessons in 
construction, boring, chiseling; manual training for girls, crocheting, knitting 
begun ; printing for boys and girls, 7, to learn to correct proof; 8, to set up copy and 
distribute it on time ; 9, to make up and lock forms. 

Senior Graynmar Class — Ninth Grade. 

Penmanship ; drawing ; physical culture, exercises in the gymnasium ; manual 
training for boys, review lessons of the last year, lessons in mitering, dovetailing, 
doweling ; begin drawing and construction ; manual training for girls, knitting 
advanced, mending, patching, darning, making button holes ; printing, boys and 
girls, 10, run the press ; 11, wash type and distribute form ; 12, do job work given 
out. 

Academic Department. 

Tenth, Eleventh, Tioelfth and Thirteenth Grades. 
This work in manual training may be adapted to all high schools. 

For Young Men. For Young Women. 

1. Drawing and construction. 1. Cutting. 

2. The lathe. 2. The use of the sewing machine. 

3. Finishing. 3. Embroidery. 

4. Printing. 4. Cooking. 

5. Printing. 

" It has cost much thought and experiment to determine what man- 
ual training is deemed appropriate for each grade. * * * The 
arrangement here given is imperfect in some of its features, and 
is not satisfactory in all respects ; but still it is the best that could be 
made in view of the attitude of the public, and the means at hand to 
give manual training." 

The following extracts from the annual report of the board of educa- 
tion for 1888 indicates the attitude of the public : 

'^ The members of the board are fully convinced of the many bene- 
fits to be derived from manual training. They have aided the efforts 
of Superintendent Love in introducing the system into our schools 
and are in full sympathy with his plans. They have done all that 
they could do wi^out overstepping the bounds of their authority. 
All is being done that can be done, until further power is conferred 
upon the board, either by State law or by local enactments. 

" In view of the fact that hand training may be profitably entered 
upon early in the school life of the child, we have adopted a plan of 
giving the pupils in the district schools, comprising the first six grades, 
short daily or tri-weekly lessons in manual training, adapted in part 
from the kindergarten methods. It is inexpensive, works well and 
is considered by the teachers a valuable aid in promoting the intel- 
lectual development of their pupils." 

Superintendent Love writes, September 28, 1888 : 

'^ There has never been any legislation in this city, on the subject 
of industrial education. I have always worked with the consent of 
the board, however. Public sentiment has always been favorable to 



Industrial Education Commission. 225 

our plans in regard to it, and I think the patrons would be very un- 
willing to have it given up or crippled in any way. 

''My teachers would, every one of the sixty-five, tell you that the 
results were entirely satisfactory, very beneficial, and that they would 
not like to teach without manual training." 

5 The College of the City of New York. 

The College of the City of New York, established in 1848, embraces 
four courses of study; a classical course and a scientific course, each 
extending over a period of five years ; a mechanical course extending 
over a period of three years; and a post-graduate course of civil 
engineering extending through two years. 

No applicant is admitted to the sub-freshman class unless he be 
fourteen years of age, a resident of the city of New York, and pass a 
satisfactory examination in writing, spelling, the English language, 
arithmetic, some elementary propositions in geometry, geography, the 
history of the United States and the elements of industrial drawing. 

Any young man, a resident of the city, is received into any of the 
higher classes, provided he satisfactorily passes examination in the 
subjects already completed by the class to which he seeks admission. 

Instruction is free; so is the use of text-books and apparatus; and 
there is no expense whatever to be borne by the students. 

The mechanical course, in detail, is as follows : 

First Year. 

Lessons 
a week. 

French, German or Spanish, 5 

English language, 3 

Mathematics, 3 

Physics, 2 

"Drawing — free-hand and mechanical, 3 

Workshop, instruction and practice, or commercial products, 4 

20 

Seconp Year. 

The same modern language as oefore, 5 

English, 3 

Mathmetics, , 3 

Chemistry, 2 

Drawing, 3 

Workshop or commercial products, 4 

20 

Third Year. 

A second modern language, 5 

English, 3 

15 Ed. Com. 



22Q Report of the 

Mathematics, v 3 

Physics and chemistry, 5 

Workshop or history and political economy, 4 

20 

Students pursuing this course, who wish to prepare themselves for 
mercantile business, may substitute the study of commercial products 
for mechanical instruction and practice in the workshop. Students 
who have completed the mechanical course may, upon passing a sat- 
isfactory examination, remain in the college and enter the junior 
class of the scientific course. 

Students in the classical and scientific courses are admitted to the 
workshop after hours of recitation, 4| hours per week, so far as they 
can be accommodated ; and provided, in the opinion of the faculty 
this additional work does not impede their progress in the courses to 
which they belong. 

The Workshop. 

Connected with the college is a workshop in which instruction is 
given in the elements of mechanical manipulation. The course of 
workshop instruction extends over three years. In the first year the 
use of wood-working tools is taught. The student becomes acquainted 
with all the ordinary wood-turning tools, and learns to fashion wood 
exactly to any required form and dimensions; to make joints of all 
kinds; to veneer, finish and polish. In the second year the metal- 
working tools are used, and the arts of forging, chipping, filing, sol- 
dering, finishing and lacquering are learned. In the third year the 
working of metals is carried further; the use of the lathe in turning 
wood and metal is learned, the side rest and the engine lathe are in- 
troduced, and the use of these tools in the making of screws, gear- 
wheels and other parts of machinery is taught. 

The object of the entire course is to furnish the student with such 
manual skill, and such a general knowledge of the tools and methods 
of working in the arts in which wood and metal are employed, as will 
give him an intelligent comprehension of any mechanical operation 
or device, and enable him, with proper study and practice, to master 
any handicraft or mechanical profession to which his attention may 
be directed in after life. 

The instruction in the mechanical arts is given either in the regular 
college course or in a special mechanical course of three years. In 
the first case the student takes the workshop instruction and practice 
after college hours, and in addition to his college studies. In the sec- 
ond, which is designed for those who are unable to take the full col- 
lege course, his time is about equally divided between academic 
studies on the one hand, and drawing and workshop practice on the 
other. The superior training in mathematics and literature obtained 
in the college course, makes the first plan decidedly preferable for all 



Industrial Education Commission. 227 

who can pursue it, and it has been found by experience that the stu- 
dent, unless he is burdened with other work outside the college, is 
not in general overtasked by taking the workshop instruction in addi- 
tion to his college studies, since it imposes on him no work to be done 
at home, and actually serves as recreation and exercise. 

The workshops are three in number. The first, for wood-working, has an area of 
1,300 square feet, and contains fifteen double benches, with closets and tools for a 
class of thirty. The second, for forge and vise work, has an area of 820 square- feet, 
and contains six Bufi'alo forges, twenty anvils, and two long benches with fifteen 
vises, and an assortment of forge and vise tools, and afibrds accommodation for a 
class of from fifteen to thirty students. The third, for lathe work, has an area of 720 
square feet, and contains six grindstones, twenty-six lathes for wood and metal- 
working, four engine-lathes and a circular saw. The shops are illuminated by elec- 
tric lamps, and the lathes and grindstones, as well as the dynamos which supply the 
light, and the ventilating fans, are driven by a steam-engine of twenty-five horse 
power. 

In the three years' course, the subject of commercial products em- 
braces the study of raw and manufactured products. The former be- 
longs to the Department of Natural History, and divides itself into 
four parts, viz : 

1. The consideration of raw materials from the mineral kingdom; 
as metals, ores, coal, petroleum, etc. 

2. Of those from the vegetable kingdom ; as grain, timber, textile 
fabrics, tea, coffee, etc. 

3. Of those from the animal kingdom; as silk, wool, fur, hides, 
meat, etc. 

4. The consideration of the sources of supply and lines of convey- 
ance, or what is generally known as " Commercial Geography.'^ 

The /Irst division of the subject is taught practically, by the exam- 
ination of the things themselves. 

The second division, or " Economic Botany," begins with the study 
of the relations of the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, and of the 
nutrition and reproduction of plants. This is followed by the study 
of their parts, their uses and products. 

The third division, or ^' Economic Zoology," is taught in the same 
manner as the first and second. 

A half- term of thirty- two lessons is assigned to each part. 

A report of a special committee of the New York City Board of 
Education, submitted in 1887, states that ''the number of students 
availing themselves of these opportunities for manual training is 185; 
their ages range from fourteen to twenty-one years, the average age 
at admission being fifteen years and three months." 

Of all the "regular course" pupils, who have selected work shop 
training in addition to their prescribed studies, but one was found to 
become backward in those studies; of the other pupils making such 
selection, it is reported that the manual training has benefited them 
in the conduct of their ordinary studies. 



Report of the 

The annual cost of imparting instruction is reported as nearly 
$3,600.00, of which about $100.00 represents the cost of materials. 

The total cost of shop plant, as stated in a report of October 31, 
1888, has been $8,640.06. 

6. The Hebre-w Teclmical Institute. 

The Hebrew Technical Institute was organized in 1884, having as 
its object the preparation of Jewish youth for industrial callings. 

It is a manual training school. The requirements for admission are : 
That pupils shall be twelve years of age and have reached the fourth 
grade in the New York public schools. These requirements have not 
in the past been rigidly enforced, as many boys of thirteen or over 
had not yet reached the fourth grade. 

The school hours are from 9 till 4 daily. Special instructions in 
wood-carving are given from 4 to 6 p. m. on Mondays and Thursdays. 

The course of instruction is as follows : 

First — Arithmetic, from fractions to the completion of arithmetic. 

Practical geometry ; completing the ground in Hill's geometry. 

Physics and mechanics ; history and geography ; language lessons ; composition 
and penmanship. 

Materials used in the arts and industries. 

Instruction in physics is illustrated by experiments, and the pupils have made 
models illustrating the application of the mechanical powers. Instruction in this 
department takes two hours daily. 

Free-hand drawing, commencing with free-hand measurement, then drawing of 
geometrical solids, sketching and drawing from cast with charcoal, one hour daily. 

Mechanical drawing. 

1. Use of tools. 

2. Developments of simple solids which are cut out in the shop from these draw- 
ings. 

3. Simple designs, which are cut out in thin wood with the hand-bracket saw. 
4". Elements of Avorking drawings. 

& Drawings of the principal joints, which are constructed in the shop. 

6i Fifty problems in practical geometry. 

7. Projection drawings. 

S. Machine drawing to scale. 

9. Elements of architectural drawing. 

10. Tracing and blue printing. 

11. Drawing trustees and patterns made in the shop. 

Course in the shop. 

L Work in pasteboard. 

2. Bracket sawing. 

8L Construction from white holly of some simple article for use. 

4. A course of twenty lessons, bringing into use the principal tools, glue and nails. 

5. A course of construction work, in which the previous course is applied. 

6. A course of lengthening timbers, and its application to buildings. 

7. Patternmaking ; series of twenty-one patterns, from which molds and casts are 
made by pupils. 

8. Castings made by the pupils, to be finished up by them. 

9. All work above mentioned to be made from drawings made by the pupil. 
At the close of the first year in the shop, metal work is commenced. 

The course of this branch includes vise-work, chipping and filing; turning brass 
and iron, brass finishing, and the course in forge work. 



Industrial Education Commission. ii29 

In the shop pupils are taught the use, care and nature of tools employed. 
The various classes are periodically taken to leading manufacturing establish- 
ments of New York, to witness the practical application of processes. 

A leaflet published by the Industrial Education Association, Sep- 
tember 24, 1888, gives the following extract from the report of the 
director : 

'' This is the difference between this school and a trade school. A 
trade school is one where some special branch is taught — a school 
where segarmaking or plumbing or some special industry is taught. 
Surely, ill-fed boys of twelve and a half or thirteen, who never saw 
a hammer or chisel, are not fit to be set at these trades. And how 
many boys of thirteen want to go to work at a trade ? Let them 
however go to a school, not where a trade is taught, but where they 
are taught to use tools and to draw and to continue their ordinary 
education, and when they get to be fifteen or so, and then they are 
not too old to enter life, what have they learned ? They have learned to 
like tools and to want to be machinists, or electricians,or carpenters, and 
when they enter their fields they will become skilled mechanics. 
They have the foundation laid stout and deep ; the foundations of 
intelligence and skill, for they know the principles not of one trade 
but the principles that underlie many trades. We dare not, in fact it 
is impossible to, take boys as young as we do, from the sources they 
come, and teach them first, trades. First, we get them to love work 
and want work, then find out for what kind of work they are best 
fitted, and then assist them in that at which they will do best. Intelr 
ligence and skill are both needed, one as well as the other. We have 
here the brain and the hand. We teach here that it is as honorable 
to be a greasy mechanic as the cleanly book-keeper ; that the field of 
industry offers as broad and broader opportunities than those of com- 
merce, that production is as honorable as distribution. 

"This is the ground work of the school. If it continues, ag I trust it 
will, it must prove a credit to the city and to the community. Its 
influence will widen year by year, and the emancipation of our people 
will be greatly furthered through its existence. Its success depends 
on liberal support. It is not a charitable institution for the distribu- 
tion of moneys, or the care of the sick, but a preventive institution, 
an educational institution, a social factor. It should be supported 
liberally so that it can have the best instruction, the best manage- 
ment, the best equipment. It should be conducted in the wisest and 
broadest manner. Only thus can the best results be attained. It 
should command the support of every intelligent member of the com- 
munity as the realization of an idea which will do more to keep our 
people in the van of the car of progress than any other institution. 
It should become an institution not for the poor alone, but for all who 
choose to enter its doors. I look into the future and see (provided 
the spirit I have lauded prevails) a fine building equipped with a 



2-30 Report of the 

laboratory, workshops and lecture room for boys and girls. And I 
see years after young men and women graduating therefrom, and en- 
tering into honest competition in those walks of life which for cen- 
turies they have avoided. . I see through this best commingling in all 
employments the solution of fhe race problem. I see the Jew and 
the Gentile alike working at the forge and the bench. I see Jewish 
builders, plumbers, masons and machinists. I see the mercantile 
spirit no longer monopolizing the attention of our youth, and the 
historian of our race's progress will then accord to all those who in- 
terest themselves in the broad and philanthropic cause of this institute 
due credit as the founders of this social reform. 

'^The number of pupils now in attendance is 87. At the same date 
last year. 86. Of the pupils who were members of the school at the 
last report, 23 are now engaged in industrial work. There are now 
ten pupils forming our highest class ready to leave its walls and enter 
practical life. During the summer the usual summer course was 
held, during which period the attendance reached 125. In consider- 
ing the number of pupils it should be borne in mind that many of 
those who enter the school and do not complete the course are very 
materially benefited by the instruction they here obtain. In any em- 
ployment these boys enter, the ' handiness ' they have acquired 
endows them with additional usefulness. 

" Cases of absence from illness are rare. The excellent condition 
may be attributed in no small degree to the abundant exercise that 
the boys get in the manipulation of the tools. The boys here do not 
sit for any great length of time, but perform much of their work 
standing, and are taught to employ all their activities. Many of our 
pupils show more than the average physical growth as a result of 
their work here. No serious breaches of discipline have taken place 
that call for mention. The kindest methods of treatment are em- 
ployed. Appeals in cases of necessity are made to the pupil's sense 
of honor. He is taught to respect authority and property even when 
not watched. No undue reference is made to the fact that the pupils 
are the recipients of the kindness of others, but a constant endeavor 
is made to develop the thankfulness that best expresses itself in manly 
and courteous behaviour, diligence at work and a pride in the accom 
plishing of good results. The severest penalty that can be inflicted is 
detention from the shop or drawing-room, and it is an exceptionally 
phlegmatic pupil that will not linger fascinated about the lathe or the 
engine room long after the stated school time is over. 

'•-The course of instruction has been extended. The equipment of 
the metal working shop now includes two engine lathes, 2 drill presses, 
2 speed lathes, 1 planer and 15 vises, with all the necessary tools used 
with these machines. The vise work in a series of eight progressive 
exercises teaches the pupil the properties of cast iron and the use of 
the hammer, chisel, file, straight-edge, calipers and square, bevel 



ERRATUM, jt?. 231. 
Read^ 7. The Industrial Education Association. 



Industrial Education Commission. 231 

gauge, dividers. The utmost accuracy is required. Exercises of the 
lathe are first commenced in type metal, followed by work in steel 
and brass. The vise work done here is far beyond the average of 
that which is done by boys of similar age in other institutions. In 
the wood- working department the main features of the instruction 
hitherto followed has been continued. The instruction commencing 
with simple exercises in pasteboard work as an introduction to wood- 
work, includes joinery, wood turning^ patternmaking and cabinet- 
making. The features of instruction in mechanical and free hand 
drawing have not been materially modified. All work in the shop is 
made from drawings of the object and from measurements taken by 
the pupils. Instruction in the principles of mechanics is given prac- 
tically, and the pupils are required to construct models illustrating the 
principles. This work thus gives practice in the use of tools and 
instructs most thoroughly in the elements of science. The instruc- 
tion in the English department averaging for each class but two hours 
daily, includes history, geography, arithmetic, geometry, physics, 
language lessons, letter writing and industrial topics. As our pupils 
are on an average under thirteen when they enter, it is necessary 
that instruction in these branches be given. Furthermore, as the 
purpose of the school is to develop intelligent young men they must 
be grounded in those principles which underlie the arts and industries. 
" Summarizing the course of instruction it will be seen to fall under 
three heads : Shop-work in wood and iron, drawing, free hand and 
mechanical, the English branches and physics. Each pupil attends 
during the six hours which form the school day, and receives instruc- 
tion in all the departments. The longer he stays in the school the 
following facts become apparent: First, whether he has any 
mechanical aptitude; second, whether he likes wood or iron work, 
and this evidences itself by the work he does for special work. Thus 
one boy will make a dynamo or an engine, while another will pre- 
fer to make a desk. It is the aim of the school as far as possible, 
after a certain general course of instruction has been given, to furnish 
in the last portion of the pupil's instruction a special preparation." 



7. The Industrial Education Oommission. 

The outline and purpose of the work of the association are best stated 
by the following extracts from publications issued by it at difi'erent 
times. 

'' The growth of the association work is a most excellent example of 
the development of an idea. In April, 1880, there was incorporated 
in New York city, the kitchen-garden association. The objects of 
this association were the promotion of the domestic industrial arts 
among the laboring classes, by giving to the children of the same, and 



232 Report of the 

to such others as might be deemed desirable, gratuitous instructioa 
in household arts, according to the principle of the kitchen-garden 
system; and also to promote a wide and correct diffusion of the prin- 
ciples upon which the system had been founded, and to prevent its 
degenerating into careless and erratic methods of teaching, which 
might expose the system to misconception in its objects and opera- 
tion. 

" It cannot be claimed that the kitchen -garden system was educa- 
tional, save indirectly. It was practical philanthrophy. The term 
seems to have originated with Miss Emily Huntington, who published 
a book on the subject in 1878. By 'kitchen- garden ' Miss Huntington 
denoted an application of some details of FroebePs kinder-garten sys- 
tem to domestic service. The association was convinced of the value 
of the application, and in its first annual report, made in May, 1881 
was able to state that during the year the principles of the kitchen- 
garden had been applied in 29 classes, comprising 999 children in New 
York city and vicinity alone. Many other cities followed New York''s 
example, and similar classes were reported as existing in Brooklyn^ 
Philadelphia, Boston, Albany, Troy, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Wilkes- 
Barre, Meadeville, Newark, Poughkeepsie, Elmira and Newport. In 
this initial report the same note is sounded that is heard again in the 
last report which has just been issued. It is that too much stress can- 
not be laid upon the importance of training teachers for this work. 
Persons must not be permitted to take it up without adequate prepara- 
tion. In thus insisting on a professional training for teachers, the iiM- 
sociation, in the earliest days of its history, placed itself upon a proper 
plane, and made its tuture successful development possible. One year 
later, in May, 1882, one or two points of advance were chronicled. The 
kitchen-garden classes have been continued in all the cities in which 
they had previously been introduced, and new classes had been estab- 
lished in Orange, Rochester, Yonkers, St. Albans, Cedar Rapids, Ger- 
mantown. Chestnut Hill and Cleveland. A normal class had been 
started, and was meeting with gratifying success. A graduate of the 
normal class had attempted an extension of the system so that it 
would suit boys as well as girls. While this extension had not been 
developed, yet progress was reported. The third repoT t, issued in 1883, 
told of a successful but uneventful year. The fourth report, however, 
marks a significant stage in the association's development. The board 
of managers had begun to feel that their present work was too limited, 
that their fundamental principle admitted of a wider application than 
it was receiving. This feeling found expression in a resolution passed 
March 21, 1884, which reads as follows : ' Resolved^ that at the next 
regular meeting of the association the subject of the dissolving of the 
kitshen-garden association, with a view of re- organizing under a dif- 
ferent name and upon a broader basis, be presented, and action taken 
thereon. It is proposed to make this change because, first, the title 



Industrial Education Commission. 233 

" Kitchen-garden association " is too limited in its scope ; second, ex- 
perience has proved that a more advanced work in addition is essen- 
tial ; third, it is desirable that industrial training for schools in gen- 
eral, for older pupils, and for boys, be added to the present work ; 
fourth, other systems having been developed, it seems advisable to 
incorporate them with our own.' 

" In this dissolution the old was not displaced entirely by the new, 
but it was relegated to a subordinate position. A standing commit- 
tee on kitchen-garden was provided for, and to it the direction of that 
work was confided. The result of the re -organization was 'The In- 
dustrial Education Association.' In April, 1885, its first annual report 
was published ; and in its whole tenor indicates that a greatly enlarged 
work has been undertaken. In this report it is stated that the associa- 
tion was organized, first, to obtain and disseminate information upon 
industrial education, and to stimulate public opinion in its favor ; 
second, to invite cooperation between existing organizations engaged 
in any form of industrial training: third, to train women and girls in 
domestic economy, and to promote the training of both sexes in such 
industries as shall enable those trained to become self-supporting ; 
fourth, to study and devise methods and systems of industrial training, 
and secure their introduction into schools ; also, when expedient, to 
form special classes and schools for such instruction ; fifth, to provide 
instructors for schools and classes, and, if necessary, to train teachers 
for this work. 

"The work of the year, as might have been expected, had been largely 
preparatory. Industrial education had been studied, committees on 
specific topics organized and set to work. The conclusion had been 
reached that a center should be established, where, by practical ex- 
periment, the value and feasibility of manual training could be 
demonstrated. To this end the association had applied to the board 
of education of New York city for the use of a school building one 
afternoon in the week, for the purpose of holding classes, after the 
regular school hours, in sewing, domestic economy, designing, model- 
ing, simple carpentry, and the use of tools. The association ofi*ered 
to assume the entire care and expense, and to open the classes to the 
inspection of teachers, school trustees, and members of the board of 
education. This request was refused, and on the quite defensible 
ground that the board was not authorized to permit the use of a school 
building for any educational work not wholly under its own control. 
During this year, also, General John Eaton, United States Commis- 
sioner of Education, invited the association to prepare an exhibit for 
the New Orleans exposition ; but it was deemed inexpedient to at- 
tempt any such exhibition at that time. 

" The second annual report, issued in May, 1886, of the industrial 
education association, is somewhat more elaborate than its predeces- 
sors. The work of the association had attracted sufficient attention to 



234 Report of the 

incur misrepresentation, and it was deemed necessary that an ad- 
equate explanation of the term ' industrial ' be given. The report in- 
sists that by this terra is not meant the teaching of any trade, nor the 
introduction of the teaching of trades into public education. But, the 
report continues, quoting Mr. Washington Gladden, *we hold that 
there is an industrial training, which is neither technical nor profes- 
sional, which is calculated to make better men and better citizens of 
the pupils, no matter what calling they may afterward follow ; which 
affects directly, and in a most salutary manner, the mind and char- 
acter of the pupil, and which will be of constant service to him through 
all his life, whether he be wage-worker or trader, teacher or clergyman. 
The training of the eye and of the hand are important and essential 
elements in all good education. These elements the State is bound 
to furnish.' 

"•The objects of the association were defined anew, and the more 
essential of them are, 1°, to secure the introduction of manual training 
as an important factor in general education, and to promote the train- 
ing of both sexes in such industries as shall enable those trained to 
become self-supporting; 2°, to devise methods and systems of in- 
dustrial training, and to put them in operation in schools and insti- 
tutions of all grades ; 3°, to provide and train teachers for this work. 

" Numerous classes had been started in various branches of industrial 
work, and an accomplished and efficient superintendent appointed to 
organize and develop the work. The special committee on industries 
had been busy investigating the practical working of the industrial 
feature wherever introduced into reformatories and similar institu- 
tions, and was able to report that three very important conclusions 
had been reached. These were, 1°, that every child in these institu- 
tions should be trained to become a producing factor in the com- 
munity ; 2°, that, if such training is to have permanent value in the 
after-life of the child, it must be conducted on a basis of education to 
the child, and cannot be made to any extent a source of revenue to 
the institution ; 3°, that the moral results of such training are most 
satisfactory. 

" Perhaps the greatest triumph of the year was the success of the 
children's industrial exhibition, held under the auspices of the associa- 
tion. The exhibition was opened on March 31, and lasted one week. 
To meet the often expressed wish that this exhibition might show the 
results attained in cities where industrial education has alreadj^ gained 
a definite place in the curriculum of public instruction, special invita- 
tions were extended to New Haven, Jamestown, Chicago, Cleveland, 
St. Louis, Philadelphia, Boston, Worcester and other cities. The work 
of all grades of pupils, irrespective of age, was solicited with a view 
to showing the results possible under systematic training. To the 
cordial responses from these cities, as well as to the efficient coopera- 
tion of schools and institutions in and near New York, much of the 



Industrial Education Commission. 235 

success of the exhibition was due. It comprised no fewer than seventy- 
separate exhibits from schools and institutions, representing the work 
of thousands of children, and one hundred and forty individual ex- 
hibits. This exhibition did a great deal to increase the popular ap- 
preciation of the importance of industrial training. The attendance 
of visitors was veiy large, numbering over seven thousand persons. 
The press treated the exhibition with gratifying cordiality. 

Great as is the progress noted in the report of 1886, that of 1887 sur- 
passes it. The work had now reached a still more advanced stage. 
Nearly a year ago the association had outgrown its quarters, and the 
large building, No. 9 University Place, formerly occupied by Union 
theological seminary, was leased for a term of years. The building 
was altered and refitted; and in December last, two classes in draw- 
ing, one in carpentry, one in sewing, one in cookery, together with 
the kindergarten and domestic training department, were in progress. 
In April this number had increased to seven classes in drawing, six 
in carpentry, six in sewing, twelve in cookery, together with the kin- 
dergarten and domestic training department. The association has had 
under instruction 4,383 pupils, 2,991 of whom have been members of 
classes held outside of the building but instructed by teachers in the 
employ of the association. Over 400 pupils were enrolled in vacation 
classes held in July and August. A course of public lectures was given 
and attracted much attention. A museum has been opened which 
serves as an object lesson in industrial education. It is always open to 
visitors, and many teachers and other interested persons visit it daily. 
From it the eye takes in at a glance the possibilities resulting from the 
combination of manual and mental exercises, and sees how they supple- 
ment and depend upon each other. The museum comprises at pres- 
ent some twelve separate exhibits of drawing, together with speci- 
mens of carpentry, joinery, lathe and forge work, representing the 
Chicago public schools, Worcester high school, Montclair public schools, 
New Haven public schools, Hebrew technical institute, College of 
the city of New York, Baltimore manual training school, Chicago 
manual training school, and the Women's institute of technical de- 
sign. Still other exhibits are in course of preparation. 

A library fund has been secured, and by fall a large reference and 
circulating library of educational works will be at the disposal of 
teachers and students. But the most important of the new features is 
the establishment of a college for the training of teachers. This 
college will aim eventually to become a professional school for teach- 
ers, not a mere normal school in which education and preparation for 
teaching go hand in hand, but a professional school in the sense that 
a law school or a medical college is a professional school. As the 
law school has its moot courts and the medical school its dissecting- 
room, to combine practice with theory, so this college will have its 
model school. 



236 Keport of the 

In this model school the training which the association advocates 
will be given, — here the new system, which combines the old and the 
new, will be taught, — and the association hopes to have in it a strong 
confirmation of the belief which it strives to propagate. 

The college building No. 9, University Place contains a large lec- 
ture hall in which free lectures are giyen. Monographs on educa- 
tional topics are also issued from time to time. 

The statement of principles which the industrial education associa- 
tion issued recently is a most excellent pedagogic creed. It should be 
carefully perused by every teacher. The substance of it is as fol- 
lows: 

The association holds, — 

1. That the complete development of all the faculties can be reached 
only through a system of education which combines the training found 
in the usual course of study with the elements of manual training. 

2. That the current system trains the memory too largely, the 
reasoning powers less, the eye and the hand too little. 

3. That industrial training, to have its fullest value, must be an in- 
tegral part of general education. While valuable in some measure 
alone, it is alone little better than manual training as leading to the 
learning of trades. 

4. That it is not the aim of the association to teach trades. That 
boys and girls will, if educated according to the system which it ad- 
vocates, be better able to take up the study of any particular trade, it 
recognizes as one of the results of the system. It is the development 
of all the faculties which it holds to be the essential aim of the sys- 
tem. 

5. That the fact is generally recognized among those best informed 
on the subject of education that the kindergarten system produces the 
best results with young children. The association claims that the sys- 
tem which combines industrial training with the usual and necessary 
branches is nothing more than a development of the kindergarten 
theory — a system found wise for young children modified and adapted 
to children of more mature growth. 

6. That it holds the belief, that as children, wherever found, pos- 
sess the same faculties and develop the same characteristics, this 
system should be introduced into all classes and grades of schools, the 
private as well as the public schools, and not alone in the primary 
public schools, but in all those of more advanced grades. 

7. It holds that this system tends to the development of certain 
moral qualities as well as to the development of the intellectual 
faculties. 

8. That the various occupations which are by this system given to 
the children, render study less irksome than any system can in which 
the exercise of the faculty of memory is alone involved. 

9. That there exists in this country a wide-spread disinclination for 



Industrial Education Commission. 237 

manual labor which the present system seems powerless to overcome. 
There is a wide range of occupations which our boys and girls might 
with advantage enter were it not that they are prevented from doing 
so by a false view of the dignity of labor. That one of the results of 
this system of education will be to destroy a prejudice which in a 
measure arises from a want of familiarity with hand- work. 

" iO. That the first and last object of the association, the main reason 
for its existence is the creation of a public interest in this system and 
a public belief in its value. 

'' To carry out the objects of the association, the methods to be em- 
ployed in this work are substantially as follows : 

"I. By distributing writings and documents explanatory of the 
theories of industrial education and also of the practical methods of 
engrafting industrial training upon the present school system as an 
integral part of a common school education. These documents are to 
be sent to all educational centers with a view to stimulate inquiry and 
interest. 

" II. By sending persons competent to lecture upon the same mat- 
ters; to add personal influence to the documentary explanations and 
to invite the interest of persons influential in educational matters. 

'• III. By sending trained teachers to point out practical methods of 
engrafting manual training upon existing schools and institutions of 
learning, or if need be to establish independent schools for industrial 
training. 

"IV. By sending teachers to work in schools wherever needed 
throughout the country. 

"To accomplish these objects there is to be established a center of 
information at No. 9 University Place, which shall contain : 

" I. A library comprising all literature relating to the subject of in- 
dustrial training and kindred topics. 

" II. A permanent exhibition or museum of articles illustrative of 
methods and results of this work. 

" III. Courses of lectures bearing upon the same subjects. 

" IV. Normal classes for the training of teachers and lecturers for 
the work above outlined. 

" Incidental to this normal instruction there will be children's classes 
for the instruction of pupils in the various branches of manual edu- 
cation. 

" Further incidental to these normal classes, the association is pre- 
pared to furnish lodgings and board to young women who come to 
this city from a distance for the purpose of attending such normal 
classes. 

" Incidental to this boarding and lodging there is domestic training 
work, both as a means of reducing expenses in conducting the lodging 
department, and as a means of instruction to those who are to en- 
gage in that branch of handiwork." 



238 Report of the 

The prospectus of the proposed college for the training of teachers, 
opened in September, 1887, made the following announcement : 

'* The college for the training of teachers is to be founded to give 
systematic instruction to persons desirous of entering on the profes- 
sion of teaching. For the present at least, the instruction given will 
be almost wholly confined to those hitherto neglected factors in edu- 
cation which may be included under the name of industrial training. 
Both male and female students will be admitted to the college. 

" Efficient and practical instruction in the best methods of industrial 
education will be given by a competent corps of instructors, under 
whose direction and criticism students will .also teach the pupils of 
the model school. 

''As a general rule no student will be admitted to the college until 
he shall have obtained the age of eighteen years. In special cases 
this requirement may be suspended by vote of the faculty. 

"Applicants for admission are required to pass an approved exami- 
nation in the following subjects : 

'' Plane geometry — as much as is contained in the first five books 
of Davies' Legendre. 

'' History of the United States. 

" Special students are received and permitted to select such courses 
as they may choose and be found qualified to enter upon. 

"" The regular course of study is as follows : 

'' For Male Students. — History and science of education, 2 hours a 
week; mechanical drawing and wood-working, 4 hours a week; 
modeling and industrial art, 3 hours a week. 

''^For Female Students. — History and science of education, 2 hours 
a week ; mechanical drawing and wood- working, 3 hours a week ; 
modeling and industrial art, 3 hours a week ; domestic science, 5 
hours a week. 

" Students are also required to teach, under supervision, in the model 
school, and to attend various courses of lectures on educational, scien- 
tific and literary subjects that are arranged for. Ceriain courses of 
instruction and lectures in other colleges in New York city will also 
be open to the students." 

Tuition Fees. 

The terms for tuition lor the full year's course are $60. The terms 
for special and partial courses will be made known on application. A 
limited number of scholarships have been established to aid deserv- 
ing students. 

In connection with the college for the training of teachers, a model 
school for boys and girls was opened in 1887. 

This school includes a kindergarten, a primary grade and a grammar 
grade ; in which, besides the usual branches taught in the public 
schools, special attention is given to industrial drawing, clay model- 



Industrial Education Commission. 239 

ling and the use of tools. The course for girls embraces a graded 
system of sewing and cutting, together with a course in cookery. 
Tuition $4.00 a year. 

8. New York Public Schools. 

A special committee of the Board of Education on " Course of study 
and school books " submitted a report to the board in June, 1887, con- 
taining, in general outline, a course of instruction in manual training. 
This course included modeling in clay, construction work in paper^ 
pasteboard and other suitable materials, and drawing to scale for both 
boys and girls; carpenter work or the use of wood- working tools for 
boys, and sewing and cooking for girls. Suggestions were made as to 
the way in which the necessary time might be found, and an analysis 
of the probable expense to be incurred was furnished, together with 
Yarious other considerations relevant to the subject. The report con- 
cluded with a resolution commending to the board these views of the 
committee and recommending their adoption. 

This report was adopted by unanimous vote of the board, and then 
by further resolution the committee and the city superintendent were 
directed to prepare in detail a course of study in harmony with the 
views presented, and also, by means of a teachers' manual, suggestive 
and expository, to furnish a full statement of the particulars and 
methods required by the new work. The board directed that alter 
the course and manual should be prepared, " manual training should 
be tested in a limited number of grammar schools, not to exceed six 
male departments and six female departments, together with those 
primary schools and departments only that promote to the same, and 
that a reasonable time be allowed for the experiment, and that these 
exercises should not be introduced into any school except upon appli- 
cation by the trustees of the ward in which said school is situated." 

The work of preparing the new course and manual was a task full 
of difficulty and responsibility. Not only must the new element be 
given in all of its details and the methods to be pursued be explicitly 
stated, but the old course of study must be so modified as to find time 
for the new element without adding to the labors of either pupils or 
teachers. 

" This difficult work was satisfactorily performed. The course as 
now prescribed is a decided improvement upon its predecessor. No 
study has been omitted, but comparatively unimportant details have 
been left out, and methods of treatment have been judiciously 
modified. 

" In every instance the alteration made in the course of study has 
been for the better, and deserves to stand, entirely irrespective of the 
question of the retention or the rejection of manual training." 

The time assigned to the manual training exercises is one hour and 



240 Report of the 

a half per week for the primary schools and three lower grammar 
school grades, and two hours per week in the five upper grades. 

From six and one-third to about nine per cent, only of the working 
time is required for the new element. When it is considered that the 
drawing and a large part of the object lessons are now included in the 
manual training, it will be seen that the time actually taken from the 
other studies forms but a small part of the whole. 

The estimate of expenses made by the committee was as follows : 
A. Estimate of expense of introducing manual training, as recom- 
mended, into all the schools, and maintainance, the first year : 

Workshop outfit, 1300.00 per department, 60 departments, 118,000 00 

Kitchen outfit, $200.00 per department, 60 departments, 12,000 00 

Workshop supplies, $50.00 per department, 60 departments, 3,000 00 

Kitchen supplies, $100.00 per department, 60 departments, 6,000 CO 

Sewing supplies, $50 00 per department, 60 departments, 3,000 00 

Construction supplies, $25.00 per department, 240 departments, ..... 6,00000 

Teachers' salaries, 65,000 00 

Assistant superintendent's salary 3,500 00 

Constructing or preparing 120 rooms at $100.00, 12,000 00 

$128,500 00 



B. Estimated expense of maintenance of manual training in all the 
schools in the next succeeding years : 

Workshop, 10 per cent, of outfit, $1,800 00 

Kitchen outfit, 10 per cent, of outfit, 1,200 00 

Workshop supplies, 3,000 00 

Sewing supplies, 3,000 00 

Construction supplies, 6,000 00 

Teachers' salaries, 65,000 00 

Assistant superintendent's salary, 3,500 00 

$89,500 00 



C. Estimated expense of introducing manual training, except work- 
shop and cooking, as recommended, into all the schools, and of those 
two subjects into one- third of the grammar schools and the mainte- 
nance for the first year : 

Workshop outfit, $300.00 per department, 20 departments, $6,000 00 

Kitchen outfit, $200.00 per department, 20 departments, 4,000 00 

Workshop supplies, $50.00 per department, 20 departments, 1, COO 00 

Kitchen supplies, $100.00 per department, 20 departments, 2,000 00 

Sewing supplies, $50. 00 per department, 60 departments, 3,000 00 

Construction supplies, $25.00 per department, 240 departments, 6,000 00 

Teachers' salaries, 25,000 00 

Assistant superintendent's salary, 3,500 00 

Constructing or preparing 40 rooms at $100.00, 4,000 00 

$54,500 00 



D. Estimated expense, in the next succeeding years, of maintaining 
manual training, except workshop and cooking, in all the schools. 



Industrial Education Commission. 241 

together with workshop and cooking in one-third of the grammar 
schools : 

Workshop, 10 per cent, of outfit, $600 00 

Kitchen, 10 per cent of outfit, 400 00 

Workshop supplies, 1,000 00 

Kitchen supplies, 2,000 00 

Sewing supplies, 3,000 00 

Construction supplies, 6,000 00 

Teachers' salaries, 25,000 00 

Assistant superintendent's salary, 3,500 00 



§41,500 00 



A report of the board of education, under date of September 19, 
1888, states that this course of study, prepared by the committee, has 
gone into operation in twenty departments, having on register 9,847 
pupils. The report continues as follows : 

" The special teachers employed and their annual salaries, are as 
follows: 

Workshop, four at $800, $3,200 00 

Cooking, one at $1,200, 1,200 00 

Cooking, one at $600, 600 00 

Sewing, two at $800, 1,600 00 

Sewing, two at $600, . 1,200 00 



$7,800 00 



The equipment of the four workshops now in operation has cost : 
$502.38; 498.75; 830.75; 855.00. That of the five kitchens : $521.53; 
$631.03; 746.82; 777.71; 715,00. 

These figures are far in excess of the estimates in the committee's 
report of June 29, 1887, and must be substituted for them in consid- 
ering the extension of this scheme of instruction, though if the de- 
mand for such outfits should become continuous, it is likely that com- 
petition would reduce the cost considerably. The estimate for con- 
structing or preparing rooms was unnecessary, rooms having been 
found ready to hand, or provided in connection with alterations in 
progress through the committee on buildings or the trustees. 

Manual training supplies are, as far as practicable, furnished 
through the depository on pass-book orders of the trustees, in the 
same manner as those in charge of the committee on supplies. Arti- 
cles that cannot be kept in stock are procured on trustees' " applica- 
tions," except those for immediate consumption in the kitchens, 
which are bought by the teacher in charge, who is reimbursed monthly. 

The expenditure to date for supplies is as follows : 

Depository supplies, $2,893 64 

Workshop supplies, 112 71 

Kitchen supplies, 68 73 

16 Ed. Com. ^ 



242 Report op the 

The total expenditures to date have been : 

For salaries, $1,491 39 

For equipment, 6,078 97 

For supplies, 3,075 08 

For printing, 300 80 



$10,946 24 



By the end of the year the sum appropriated for this purpose 
($15,000) will apparently be exhausted. 

Your committee, in considering the details of the new course and 
manual, came to realize more strongly than before, the benefits and 
advantages to the pupils promised by the incorporation into the cur- 
riculum not only of the special handicraft exercises, but of provisions 
for the employment of the hand and eye, wherever possible, in the 
studies already prescribed, and we remain now of the opinion that 
manual training, in the broad educational sense which the committee 
have endeavored to embody in the course, should be continued where 
it now exists, and should be extended as rapidly as circumstances will 
permit, with a view to its final adoption for all the schools. 

An experiment hardly begun cannot be expected to furnish corrob- 
oration of this opinion. Yet some advantages are already apparent, such 
as incifeased interest in school work, better, because voluntary, order 
and the development of mental activity in certain cases, which are 
worthy of notice. The employment of the smallest possible number 
of individuals as teachers, most of them serving in several schools 
and in difi'erent wards, tends to uniformity in methods, facilitates 
supervision and has made it possible to adjust fairly the salaries paid. 
Your committee has had great difiiculty in finding teachers possessing 
both the technical knowledge and the general education requisite to 
carry out the special subject in the spirit desired. This circumstance 
alone would prevent a rapid increase in the number of schools adopt- 
ing the course. The want of room, too, in most of the schools, oper_ 
ates in the same direction. New schools, as erected, and old ones when 
remodeled, will for some time furnish almost the only available room. 
Your committee has reason to believe that further applications will 
be made for the manual training course when in these or other ways 
the necessary accommodations can be found, and there should there- 
fore be made provisions for a moderate increase in the number of 
manual training schools. 

To maintain the manual training course during the year 1889 in the 
schools where it is now in operation there will be required, approxi- 
mately, $10,000, and it is recommended that this amount be increased 
in the annual estimate to $25,000 so as to provide for an increase in 
the number of such schools. 

The following extract from a communication to the board of educa- 



Industrial Education Commission. 243 

ticn,from the principal of one of the grammar schools, is given in full 
as a typical experience : 

''The first term of the course of instruction in this department, 
under the provisions of the new ' Teachers' Manual,' closed on June 
30, having been begun on February 1. My teachers and myself have, 
therefore, had five months' experience in the practical application of 
what is commonly called ' Manual Training.' 

" I am very much pleased to be able to state that while I felt, before 
entering upon the 'experiment' perfectly sanguine of success, the 
favorable results obtained have far exceeded my expectations. 

"The subject of Mechanical Drawing, including geometrical prob- 
lems, required to be taught in all the grades was begun under, I at 
first believed, serious disadvantage. The lesson that we learned from 
the work of the children is well worth, I believe, describing with 
some detail. 

" It was necessary to thorough and effective work, on beginning this 
subject, an absolutely new work in all the grades, that every class 
should start on the subject matter assigned for the lowest or eighth 
grammar grade, and pass to the next higher along the line of the worK 
of the several grades as laid down in the manual, only after preceding 
grade work had been intelligently completed. Further, to quote from 
the manual, 'The applications of geometrical problems and the 
graphic solutions of the theorems require very accurate representation, 
hence the drawing is to be done by mechanical means.' 

" For more than three months the only drawing instruments obtain- 
able were the ordinary foot-ruler and lead-pencil. Foreseeing this 
unavoidable delay in obtaining the necessary supply of proper instru- 
ments, I determined to supply the place of compasses by using strings 
and pins. This was done by myself and teachers, however, with a 
great deal of trepidation as to the kind of work we would obtain. 
We certainly anticipated that great effort would be needed to obtain 
from the most attentive pupils even passable results, and that all we 
could hope for would be the intelligent understanding by the pupils 
of the ideas to be conveyed, leaving accuracy of drawing out of the 
question. 

"From day to day we were amazed at the ardor of all the pupils, 
and at the beauty and accuracy of the geometrical drawings, accom- 
plished by even the youngest boys with pins for centers of circles and 
with strings for radii. You, sir, saw some of the work and can vouch 
for a portion of this statement. 

" If I had needed argument or experience to make me an advocate 
of what is called manual training the results obtained in this way from 
the very youngest pupils, the keen delight taken by them in the doing 
of their work, their excessive, painstaking care shown and demanded 
under such disadvantage — which care and engrossed attention could 
have sprung only from their feeling of delight in their work — the 



244 Report of the 

absolute freedom on the part of the teacher during these exercises 
from the necessity of 'keeping order,' all these would have opened 
my eyes to the value of this change of methods in teaching ; for that 
is really what this 'innovation' really is. It is not, as some misun- 
derstand, so much an introduction of new subjects to displace subjects 
previously taught as a change of method in all subjects wherein the 
child can be permitted to use his activitj^ of hand and eye in the 
doing of work conveying educational ideas to his brain. 

*' If teachers who have not examined the subject closely could realize 
how valuable to us has been this change from a disciplinary standpoint 
alone ; if they could see, as we do, that a large percentage of the ex- 
penditure of energy by the teacher now required in ' keeping order ' 
could be saved, and that their classes would become as eager to receive 
instruction and do the work required as the teacher is to impart it, the de- 
mand for the ' new methods ' would come from every section of the city- 
"As one result of my five months' experience, and a result worthy, 
I believe, of being emphasized, I find, after a consultation with my 
teachers, that I can abolish the practice of ' keeping in ' after three 
o'clock for disciplinary purposes. 

"• Much of the supposed necessity for punishment of this kind arises 
from the use of methods which do not interest the child and against 
which the child's nature rebels. Why not then help ourselves by the 
use of methods to which the child takes naturally and readily, and 
thus avoid almost endless friction and loss of energy on the part of 
l)oth teacher and pupil ? 

"The work I speak of above and the spirit evinced by the pupils were 
not confined to selected cases ; they were general ; in fact, boys with 
the previous reputation of being 'troublesome.' 'uneasy,' 'rest- 
less ' and ' inattentive ' showed in most instances the very best results. 
"In the 'workshop,' the logical continuation of the mechanical 
drawing- work, covering the higher five of the eight grammar grades, 
there has not occurred a single instance of misbehavior needing even 
rebuke. 

" Further, working on the mechanical drawing with strings and pins 
for drawing instruments, as I have described, not only has the work 
in all other directions been fully and satisfactorily done, hui each class 
has accomplished^ in this subject^ the full work of all the preceding 
(jraminaT grades ; so that now, on beginning the new term, each class 
will properly enter upon the work allotted to its particular grade. 
That is to say, for instance, the fourth- grade class will take up the 
work in mechanical drawing belonging to the fourth grade of that 
subject, having thoroughly covered the preceding grades during the 
last term ; and so, in like manner, all the other classes in the de- 
partment. And this, not because the pupils were at all ' rushed ' or 
'driven' by their teachers, but because the boys did the work with 
perfect ease and could not he held hack. 



Industrial Education Commission. 245 

" And here is as good a place as any to say something of the teachers. 

" When the first proof sheets of the new manual reached us, some 
time before its publication in book form, I cut them in slips so as to 
divide the grades and subjects ; and I distributed the slips among 
the teachers to be copied, as far as possible simultaneously, and thus 
avoid any loss of time. This had to be done so as to accommodate 
the teachers of the male and female departments, as we had but one 
proof-copy for both. This done, we met for consultation after school- 
hours, as, indeed, became our almost weekly practice during the 
term. At our first meeting the following remark was made in refer- 
ence to the ' mechanical drawing.' 

" ' Why, this demands from the eighth grade alone work in geometrjr 
upon which girls have failed in normal college examinations ! We'll 
never do it!' Of course, the reference was to such problems as: 
' Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle ;' ' divide a straight 
line into any given number of equal parts ;' ' construct a parallelo- 
gram when an angle and the adjacent sides are given,' etc., etc. — all- 
found in the lowest grade. 

" After the method of presentation of this work had been made clear, 
and the evident ease and delight of all the pupils in doing the work 
became manifest, of course this preliminary 'scare' subsided. 

"The work in 'free-hand drawing,' especially in the lower grade^ 
has shown fully as surprising results. The readiness with which, 
after a Jew weeks, the boys of the eighth, seventh and sixth grades 
rapidly sketched objects set before them, each boy representing the 
object correctly as seen from his own position, was almost a revela- 
tion. The 'kitchen' of the female department has furnished us 
with a great variety of familiar objects which we have freely used. 
The fact that in the younger boys of these grades we have found a 
much greater facility than in the older boys of higher grades, would 
seem to indicate great mistakes in our previous methods of teaching 
this subject. 

" In the ' workshop,' too, this same feature was very striking; the 
work done by the younger boys was, as a rule, the better. When, in 
time, we shall receive from the primary departments promotions 
whose training shall have been founded upon the study of ' form ' 
and ' drawing ' under the same system of modeling in clay and draw- 
ing directly from the object, what additional agreeable surprises will 
manifest themselves none of us can as yet, anticipate. 

" Contrary to general expectation, I have found very few instances 
of accident occurring from the handling of sharp tools in the ' work- 
shop;' and these few were trival and noticeably confined to the older 
boys." 

Reports from four other schools bore substantially the same testi- 
mony. " Similar communications were not obtained from the princi- 
pals of primary departments, for want of time." 



246 Report of the 



XVII. OHIO. 

1. The Technical School of Cincinnati. 

At a meeting held by the Order of Oincinnatus, July 8,1886, a com- 
mittee was appointed to investigate the subject and the feasibility of 
organizing a technical school. 

The committee making a favorable report, an association was formed 
and incorporated under the laws of the State of Ohio, July 27, 1886, 
under the name of " The Technical School of Cincinnati." 

The association completed its organization October 25, 1886, by 
electing a board of fifteen directors, and the school was formally 
opened for the admission of pupils JNovember 1, 1886, in the art rooms 
of Music Hall. 

The Commercial Club of Cincinnati took formal action, as a body, 
on the subject of the technical school in November, 1887 — although a 
number of its members had been interested in the movement since 
its beginning — and have since borne nearly half the expense of the 
school. 

As stated in the articles of incorporation, the object of this school 
shall be to furnish pupils instruction and practice in the use of tools, 
mechanical and free-hand drawing, mathematics, English language 
and the natural and physical sciences; to develop skill in handicraft 
and to impart such a knowledge of essential mechanical principles as 
will facilitate their progress in the accquirement of manual trades. 

" The mistake of thinking the technical school a refuge for refrac 
tory or indolent pupils should not be made. If a boy cannot be made 
to study, and must be coerced if he ever learns anything at all, he is 
out of place in the technical school. 

"The course in this school requires of its students as much applica- 
tion and continuous honest effort as does the course in any academic 
institution of equal rank. The advantage claimed for its hand train- 
ing is that it requires thinking. The work is never so long continued 
that it becomes mechanical or automatic, but is changed so frequently 
and is varied in its nature so that it requires as much mental effort — 
although of a different kind — as is required in the study of math- 
ematics or of languages. 

"To guide the hand in its ever- varying tasks requires the continu- 
ous directive effort of the mind and results in after- reflection on the 
degree of success or failure in the work attempted, of disappointment 
and of plans for overcoming the opposing obstacles, and the tangible . 
results are to show when success at last crowns the efforts of the 



Industrial Educatio:n^ Commissiojs. 247 

genuine student. The result of the thinking, the planning, the final 
overcoming of the difficulties and the production of the finished pro- 
ject is education in its truest sense, the awakening of dormant facul- 
ties, the development of the latent capabilities. 

"But some object to schools founded on this system, because hand 
training is the plan followed in educating the defective classes. That 
there are those who cannot comprehend reasoning in the abstract 
without first having been taught by means of tangible objects should 
be no reason for objections to our methods. If such wonderful results 
are accomplished by such means with those who are lacking in men- 
tal capacity, why not expect grander and fuller results from those 
in the complete possession of all their mental attributes ? If such 
great things are attained in the education of the blind, deaf mutes 
and those who are deficient i.i their mental powers, through the 
agency of that wonderful piece of mechanism which distinguishes the 
highest of created beings from all others — the human hand — why not 
look for the fullest exemplification of the value of this training with 
those in the full possession of all their powers, both mental and phy- 
sical, in schools of hand culture." 

Admission. 

Candidates for admission to the first year class must be fourteen 
years of age, and should in general be prepared for entrance to the 
high school. 

Pupils are admitted without examination on certificates from princi- 
pals of intermediate or grammar schools, showing them to be of good 
moral character and to have the necessary qualifications. 

Candidates for admission to the first year class must pass a satis- 
factory examination in reading, spelling, writing, common school 
geography, English composition, with correct use of capitals and 
punctuation, arithmetic, including fundamental rules, common and 
decimal fractions, denominate numbers, percentage, interest and gen- 
eral problems. 

Candidates for admission to the advanced classes may present 
themselves at the same time, and are examined in the work (book 
studies) accomplished by the class to which admission is desired. 

Those who have completed the mental work of the various classes 
may be admitted as special students in the drawing and shop work, 
being excused from other recitations at the discretion of the superin- 
tendent, " In general, the most satisfactory results are attained only 
by the close association of the mental and manual work." 

The school year is divided into two terms of twenty weeks each. 
The tuition is as follows : 

First-year class, per year $75 00 

Second-year class, per year, 100 00 



^48 Keport of the 

Third-year class, per year, $125 00 

Fourth-year class, per year, . 150 00 

Pupils must furnish their own books, drawing instruments and ma- 
terials, scales, rules, calipers, etc., and their own aprons and overalls. 

The school furnishes all shop tools and materials. 

Drawing instruments and materials cost from $10 to $15 for the first 
year and from $5 to $6 thereafter. The cost of books is about $5 or 
$6 per year. 

Every pupil is required to make a deposit of $5 to cover possible 
damage to the property of the school, which must be increased when- 
ever the assessments exceed the original deposit. This is returned 
less assessments, if any, when the pupil severs his connection with 
the school. 

The course of instruction and practice is as follows : 

First Year. 

Mathematics. — Review Arithmetic (business forms and usages), Algebra. 
Science — Physical Geography, Introductory Science, Botany of Plants. 
Language.— 'Eiia.^W^'h. Composition or Language Lessons, United States History. 
Drawing. — Lettering, Outline and Shading in Charcoal from Objects, Free-hand 
and Mechanical, Designs for Wood Carving. 
Shop Work. — Carpentry and Joining, Finishing, Wood Carving. 

Secoi!3d Year. 

Mathematics. — Algebra, Plane Greometry. 

Science. — Botany of Woods, Book-keeping, Physics. 

Language. — Rhetoric, English History. 

Drawing. — Isometric Projection, Mechanical Perspective, Projection of Shadows, 
Ornamental Lettering, Pattern Draughting, Free-hand Work, Pen Sketching. 

Shop Work. — Wood Turning, Carving on Turned Surfaces, Patternmaking, Sheet 
Metal Work. 

Third Year. 

Mathematics. — G-eometry, Plane and Solid, Trigonometry. 

Science. — Chemisfery and its Applications in the Arts. 

Language. — English Literature and Composition, Civil Government (German or 
French). 

Drawing. — Orthographic Projection, Brush Shading in India Ink, Model Drawing, 
Architectural Drawing, Decorative Design. 

Shop Work. — Molding and Casting, Forging, Welding, Toolmaking, Brazing, etc. 

Fourth Year. 

Jfa^Aema^ics.— Mechanics, Trigonometry and Surveying. 

Science. — Physiology, Geology, Theory and Science of Steam Engineering. 

Language. — English Literature and Composition, Elements of Political Economy 
(German or French). 

Drawing. — Water Color, Landscape Architecture, Topographical Drawing, Archi- 
tectural Design, Machine Construction. 

Shop TFo7'A;.— Machine Shop Practice, Chipping, Filing, Lathe Work, Screw Cut- 
ting, Drilling, Planing, etc. 

The work of the school day commences at 9 a. m. and closes at 3.30 p. m., with 
thirty minutes from 1 o'clock for lunch. 

To avoid monotony the classes change work and recitation rooms, Avhen possible, 
every hour. Under no circumstances is work of any kind allowed for more than 
two liours continuously. 



Industrial Education Commission. 249 

" In all cases the aims of the teachers are to direct the efforts of the 
pupil, to cause them to investigate for themselves, to become students. 
Whenever practicable the pupils are required to do experimental 
work, and to write out the results of their observations. 

" Particular stress is laid on the study of the English language and 
literature. In this connection, in addition to the outlined work, peri- 
odical visits are made to various manufacturing establishments and 
and other places of interest. Generally those places are selected in 
which the work is similar to, or closely connected with the topics of 
study at that time. The pupils are required to make observations 
and to take notes, which they must embody in an essay or descriptive 
account of their visit. 

•' Writing and spelling also come under this head. All papers must 
be neatly written and are marked on construction, punctuation, capi- 
talization and spelling. Special lessons in spelling are given three 
times each week ; in defining, in spelling and in constructing sen- 
tences, in which the selected words shall be properly placed. 

" Pupils who desire to enter the scientific courses of colleges, uni- 
versities of polytechnic schools after completing the course in this 
school, are allowed to take, with the approval of the superintendent, 
German or French in place of English literature and composition, in 
the third and fourth years of this course. 

'' Graduates of this school are admitted without examination and 
free of conditions, on the certificate of the superintendent, to the 
scientific courses of the following institutions : 

" Columbia University, Washington, t). C. 

" Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. 

" St. John's College, Annapolis, Md. 

'' Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. 

" Kose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, Ind. 

*' Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, O. 

" Certificates are granted only to those whose work has been thor- 
oughly satisfactory in every particular throughout the entire course.'^ 

The following is the plan of the course in drawing, 1888-9, arranged 
topically : 

First Year. 

(1) Free-hand work on blackboard, working drawings for shop ; (2) lettering, 
mechanical and free-hand ; (3) outline and shading from objects in charcoal; (4) 
free-hand shading in pencil from machines, etc.; (5) mechanical drawing, use of 
mathematical instruments, pen-lining, etc.; (6) free-hand sketches of machines or 
tools, with dimensions accurately marked, from which mechanical drawings may 
be made, mechanical drawings of same with details and sections; (7) free-hand 
decorative drawing and designs for Avood-carving. 

Second Year. 

(1) Isometric projection; (2) mechanical perspective from models, problems in 
plain and oblique perspective; (3) free-hand perspective, blackboard and paper; 
(4) projection, formation of objects, tinted ; (5) projection of shades and shadows 



250 Report of the 

with ruling-pen; (6) ornamental lettering; (7) geometric construction: (8) pat- 
tern draughting ; (9) sketches, with pencil and with pen and ink. 

Third Year. 

(1) Orthographic projection ; (2) brush shading in India ink ; (3) drawing from 
casts and models in light and shade ; (4) geometrical ornamentation and principles 
of decorative design ; (5) architectural drawing, including plans, elevations, sec- 
tions, details, perspective and working plans ; (6) household decorative designs, as 
applied to wall papers, carpets, etc. 

Fourth Year. 

Architectural Course. 

(1) Topographical drawing; (2) study in water colors; (3) landscape architec- 
ture, arrangement of lawns, drives, parks, etc. ; (4) interior decoration, staircase 
halls, libraries, etc. ; (5) original design of a house with plans, elevations, sections, 
details, etc. 

Mechanical Course. 

(1) Topographical drawing ; (2) engineering, draughting, grades, fills, sewers, 
etc.; (3) square and Y-threaded bolts, etc., shaded in India ink; (4) machine con- 
struction, bevel gears, spurs, mitres, eccentrics, etc.; (5) final project drawing of 
machine, shaded in India ink, with details and working draA^'ings. 

This course of drawing is based on the theory that a knowledge of 
the art of drawing is fundamental to accurate mental conceptions. 
Its object is to train the powers of observation before proficiency with 
pen or pencil is expected. To teach the eye to see all there is of an 
object, and seeing, to delineate it. As the imaginative mind is able 
to comprehend ideas sooner than the unimaginative by the greater 
facility with which it forms mental representation to them, so the 
student trained in the use of drawing pencil outranks the one who is 
untrained, not only in the drawing and mechanical work, but in the 
sciences, mathematics and language. 

The work of the drawing course cannot be accomplished entirely in 
the school time. In some cases the theories and principles are given 
and the pupil does the work at home, it is then brought in for inspec- 
tion. The greater part of the work, however, is done at school under 
the immediate supervision of the instructor. 

Shop Equipment. 

Two shops are equipped at present, the carpentry department and wood-turning 
department. Both departments are at present in the same room which is 60x90 feet. 

There are twelve double wood-workers' benches in each equipment, which are 
furnished with iron coachmakers' vises of the latest improved pattern. Each bench 
has two complete sets of tools consisting ot rip, hand and back saws, hammer, mal- 
let, oilstone, oil can, try, bevel and carpenter's squares, dividers, scratch awl, screw- 
driver, jack, smoothing and jointer planes. Besides these there are kept in the tool 
room a number of special and general tools, to which all of the pupils have access as 
occasion may require. Each pupil has an individual set of chisels, gouges and carv- 
ing tools, which are kept in locked drawers. For the condition and safety of these 
tools the pupil is held responsible. 

In the turning department there are seventeen speed lathes and one engine lathe, 
a circular saw for getting out stock, emery grinder and grindstone. As in the car' 
pentry department each pupil has an individual set of turning chisels and gouges. 

The machinerj^ is driven by a seven-horse poAver engine. 



Industrial Education Commission. 251 

Shop Instruction. 

" In shop practice the work done is intended to be disciplinary and to 
promote habits of self-reliance. The faculty of making plans and the 
ability to execute them are the objective points rather than manual 
dexterity or unusual skill in any particular line of work. 

" In beginning the instruction in any department the simplest tools 
or appliances are usually taken first. In the carpentry department 
the saw is the first tool used. The instructor gives a lecture or explan- 
atory talk on the theory of the tool and the uses to which it may be 
put, illustrating the same by doing practical work, asking and answer- 
ing questions until the subject is clear to every member of the class ; 
each one then proceeds to do the work for himself, the instructor giv- 
ing assistance and individual aid to such as may need it. As soon as 
the pupils are fairly proficient in the use of one tool another is given 
out, until they can saw fairly straight with or without a guiding line, 
plane a true surface, use the marking gauge, plane accurately to a 
gauge mark, ' square a piece,' etc. 

" They are now ready to lay out work from drawings and from their 
instruction in the drawing room are able to make drawings of simple 
rectangular objects in plain projection. Each pupil is required to use 
a blank book in which the working drawings for the shop are made 
hy himself io a specified scale. These drawings are made from the 
object to scale or from a blackboard sketch on which the correct 
dimensions are given in figures. The course in shop practice and 
drawing is arranged in progressive lessons and thus the pupils are soon 
able to make intricate drawings in orthographic or isometric projec- 
tion, fi^eehand^irom. which they may make accurate models inthe shop. 

" The shop instruction after the first practice work consists of exam- 
ples of the various kinds of joints, mortises and tenons, splices, scarfs, 
frames, etc. Pupils are given no practical work to do before they 
know how to handle the tools. It is always discouraging to the novice 
to attempt work beyond his ability and to fail in it. 

" In this work besides the physical powers the powers of concentrated 
attention and thought are brought out and developed. One great 
value of such training is in the aid it gives in determining the life 
work of those who come within its influences. It aims to aid the 
pupil in finding the work for which he is best fitted at the least possi- 
ble expenditure of time and money, to develop the tastes when dis- 
covered, that he maj^ know in making a choice that it is a wise one. 

" The school instruction is widely diff'erent from that in vogue in shops 
and factories in the training of apprentices, in that the object sought 
is the mastery of tools and the training ot the judgment, rather than 
immediate apparent results. The average foreman or employer seeks 
to make the labor of the apprentice remunerative as soon as possible. 
Generally when he can do a thing well he is kept at that particular 
thing, that his work may become more valuable as his skill increases. 



252 Report of the 

His knowledge of other lines of the trade is usually ' picked up ' hy 
chance or he obtains it by being placed in unusually fortunate circum- 
stances. The qualifications of such a one when he becomes a trades- 
man are usually limited to proficiency in a few things instead of a 
wide and available knowledge of many. 

'' It must not be inferred that general scholarship is neglected in this 
school. Indeed, though the hours devoted to purely mental work are 
fewer than in other schools, the general scholarship of a certain num- 
ber of students taken at random will be almost sure to outrank the 
scholarship of an equal number of high school or academy pupils, and 
will be certain to do so in the natural sciences, drawing and mathe- 
matics." 

Results. 

Some of the results of the work are shown by the following extracts : 

The practical work of the school began with a class of t/iree pupils, 
and closed the year, June 22, 1887, with eighteen. 

The second year opened September 5, 1887, with an enrolment of 
forty pupils, which has since increased to sixty-four. 

" Pupils are not always correctly judged. The one who in the 
grammar school or academy was thought to be a sluggard, a dunce or 
an incorrigible, when placed in a technical school often develops ex 
ceptional ability and outstrips with ease, both in mental and manual 
work, those who were thought to be his superiors, because of the 
awakening of the faculties which were waiting for the magic touch of 
congenial occupation to bring them into abundant life. 

'' The apparent dullards and idlers are not always those who derive 
the greatest benefits from manual training. The bright pupil who has 
a natural taste for mechanical pursuits and who does well anywhere 
because of his tractability and teachableness, at once shows an interest 
and enthusiasm in the work that is contagious among his fellows. 
However, it is not claimed that brilliant results will be obtained in 
each and every case. It is a melancholy fact that there are some 
children who will not be taught in any school, and who oppose all 
attempts to instruct them, and Avhat knowledge they do acquire is 
mainly by coercion or by the happy selection of instructors. 

'• It is interesting to the inquiring observer to note the acquirement 
of skill, the development of tastes for certain lines of work, the dis- 
covery of natural abilities hitherto unsuspected, the finding out of the 
kind of work best liked, or of what is equally valuable, of that which 
is not liked. 

*' Generally, it is not long after a number of boys are started in work 
of this kind, before some of them will be asking for permission to do 
work for themselves or friends outside of the regular class time. Then 
they will undertake small jobs for other persons, and presently some 
will be purchasing tools to be used in their leisure moments. It is a 
well-established fact that the general health of students in manual 



Industrial Education Commission. 253 

training schools is better than that of the students in other schools of 
like grade which have no manual training or equivalent exercise. 

'' In this connection it is remarkable that because of ill health some 
of our best pupils were never able to do the work of an entire school 
year before coming here, but since their connection with this school 
have scarcely missed a day in attendance. This they attribute to the 
beneficial effects of the physical exercise received in the workshop. 
They notice this more particularly because, not being accustomed to 
manual labor, the shop work at first seemed to weary them excessively, 
which feeling passed away as soon as they became accustomed to the 
work. They now l®ok forward to the shop time as being the best part 
of the day. 

'' By their training in the use of tools, students are enabled to manu- 
facture simple apparatus for experimenting in the physical laboratory, 
and not only the simple, but some of the more complex. The inven- 
tive faculties are stimulated, and in working out one idea materials are 
collected for others. Thus habits of observation and reflection are 
acquired, without which no one ever becomes a successful student, or 
a scholar in the full sense of the term. 

'* The shop work is but the practical application of the instruction 
received in the drawing room, for no work is allowed to be done in 
the shop without first making an illustrative or a working drawing. 
And a drawing, instead of being a confused mass of lines to the student, 
soon becomes a living representation, full of meaning. 

'' The extraordinary advantages of these schools to those possessine; 
mechanical tastes or inventive talents need but to be presented to be 
recognized. The technical instruction is not narrowed to the details 
of a few trades, bat the use of tools and practically the foundation 
principles of all trades are taught. This is also the case in drawing, in 
which it is not intended that the ornamental and artistic shall be 
wholly crowded out by the technical. 

" The science course in the technical school is arranged to harmonize 
as closely as possible with the technical work, as well as with the 
course in mathematics, so that while the how is being taught in one 
department, it is closely followed by the why in another. At the 
same time due provision is made for the study of language and litera- 
ture. The inventive genius who starts out with such an equipment is 
surely a long way on the road to success. 

" On the other hand, the reasons why those who do not possess 
mechanical ability, in a marked degree, should take a course in a 
technical school, is, perhaps, expressed in the arguments we often hear 
put forth by educators in classical and mathematical schools : ' If you 
have a dislike for languages or for mathematics, that is the very 
reason why you should study them. It shows a deficiency in the 
mental nature in that particular direction, and should be made up by 
special effort to overcome it.' But this may be asserted with better 



254 Report of the 

reason in regard to technical schools, for failure in this line of study 
more often results from carelessness and inattention, than from lack 
of mental capacity. A case of a pupil passing through a course of 
this kind without showing proficiency in some line of technical work 
is exceedingly rare, indeed. 

'' Apart from its educational value the benefits which may be derived 
from the physical training received, will amply repay one for the 
time spent in this department, in this respect being almost equal 
to gymnasium work. It is a fact established beyond all cavil, 
that those students in schools and colleges who take a regular and 
judicious amount of gymnasium work, stand at the head of their 
classes in scholarship, in physical and mental health, in endurance 
and capacity for work, and are longer lived than those who do not. 

" In speaking of technical education, quite a number of business 
men of Cincinnati have said to the writer : ' I wish I could spare the 
time to take the entire course of drawing and tool instruction in your 
school, not that I would expect to make a direct use of the knowledge, 
but for the satisfaction of knowing how to do things for myself. When- 
ever I desired to have any mechanical work done, I could make a 
drawing of what I wanted and would know when the work was prop- 
erly completed. Many times in my experience would knowledge of 
that kind have been particularly valuable to me.' The frequent re- 
currence of such remarks has been surprising." 

2. Case School of Applied Science. 

Leonard Case, the founder of the Case School of Applied Science, 
on the 24th of February, 1876, executed a trust deed, setting apart 
certain lands to endow and establish a scientific school in the city of 
Cleveland. In the trust deed he directed the trustees — 

" To cause to be formed and regularly incorporated under the laws 
of Ohio, an institution of learning to be called the ' Case School of 
Applied Science,' and located in said city of Cleveland, in which shall 
be taught, by competent professors and teachers, mathematics, physics? 
engineering — mechanical and civil — chemistry, economic geology, 
mining and metallurgy, natural history, drawing and modern lan- 
guages." 

After the death of Mr. Case, January 6, 1880, the necessary steps 
were taken to secure legal incorporation. 

In 1881 instruction was undertaken, on a limited scale, in the resi- 
dence of the late Mr. Case, on Rockwell street, and continued there 
until June 1885. In September, 1885, the school was transferred to 
a new building on Euclid avenue. This building was burned in 
October, 1886, but was immediately rebuilt. 

Admission. 
Candidates for admission to the first class of the regular courses of 



Industrial Education Commission. 255 

study must be at least sixteen years of age, and must be prepared to 
pass an examination in English grammar and composition, arithmetic, 
including the metric system of weights and measures, algebra, geom- 
etry, plane and solid, and the elements of physics and chemistry. 

Candidates for any other class than the first are also examined in 
studies previously pursued by the class they desire to enter. 

Persons who desire to pursue special branches, and who are not 
candidates for a degree, are permitted to enter the school as special 
students, without passing the regular examination. They must be 
prepared to pursue profitably the work which they select and must 
conform to the regulations ot the school with regard to recitations 
and term examinations. If desired, a certificate of proficiency in the 
subject pursued is given to those who have studied in any depart- 
ment at least one year. 

Arrangements are made in the laboratories for those who desire to 
fit themselves in special branches, either for teaching or for practical 
work. 

The regular courses of study are completed in four years, of two 
terms each. The school year begins about the last of September and 
ends the middle of June. 

Fees. 

The fee for tuition is seventy-five dollars a year, and the fee for 
chemicals and use of instruments and apparatus is twenty-five dollars 
a year. Each student is required, upon entrance, to deposit twenty 
dollars as security against possible injury to the building or furniture, 
and for breakage of apparatus in the laboratories. This deposit is 
retained until the student severs his connection with the school, and 
it is increased whenever the damage to school property or laboratory 
breakage exceeds the amount of the first deposit. When the student 
leaves the school the balance of the deposit is returned to him. 

Courses. 

The school provides courses of instruction in civil engineering, 
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, mining engineering, 
drawing, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, mathematics, as- 
tronomy and the English, French and German languages. These 
courses of study are intended to give a thorough training in the prin- 
ciples of physical science, and to ofi"er a practical education as a pre- 
paration for scientific pursuits. 

The following regular courses of study have been established ; each 
course requires four years for completion, and for proficiency in any 
of them the degree of Bachelor of Science in the course pursued is 
conferred : 

I. General Course. 

II. Civil Engineering. 



256 



Report of the 



III. Mechanical Engineering. 

IV. Mining Engineering. 
y. Electrical Engineering. 

YI. Physics. 

YII. Chemistry. 

The general course is intended for students who do not desire to 
give as much time to a single topic as is given in the other regular 
courses. During the last two years the course is largely elective. The 
choice of any study is subject to the approval of the president and of 
the professor in whose department the student desires to work. 

The Course in Mechanical Engineering, in detail, is as follows : 

First Year. 



FIRST TERM. 

Algebra and Trigonometry. 

Chemistry (Lectures). 

Chemical Laboratory. 

Rhetoric. 

French. 

Mechanical Drawing. 



SECOND TERM. 

Analytical Geometry. 

Chemistry (Lectures). 

Chemical Laboratory. 

English Literature. 

French. 

Descriptive Geometry and Drawing. 

Second Year. 



FIRST TERM. 

Mechanism. 

Machine Drawing. 

Shop Work. 

Surveying. 

Calculus. 

Physics (Lectures and Recitations). 

German. 

French. 



SECOND TERM. 

Mechanism, 

Machine Drawing. 

Shop W^ork. 

Calculus. 

Physics (Lectures and Recitations). 

German. 

French. 



Third Year. 



FIRST TERM. 



Steam Engineering. 

Machine Drawing. 

Shop V^ork. 

Calculus. 

Mechanics. 

Physics (Lectures and Laboratory). 

German. 



SECOND TERM. 



steam Engineering. 

Machine Design. 

Shop Work. 

Mechanics. 

Physics (Lectures and Laboratory). 

German. 

Slide Valve, Link Motion, Governors. 

Mechanical Engineering Laboratory. 

Fourth Year. 



FIRST TERM. 

Mechanical Engineering. 

Machine Design. 

Shop Work. 

Mechanical Engineering Laboratory. 



SECOND TERM. 

Mechanical Engineering. 

IVIachine Design. 

Thesis Work. 

Shop Work. 

Mechanical Engineering Laboratory, 



Methods of Instruction. 
The methods of instruction include lectures, recitations, laboratory 



Industrial Education Commission. 257 

practice, and field work. While a thorough theoretical knowledge of 
each subject is required, great importance is attached to practical 
training, as a source of mental discipline, as well as a preparation for 
active pursuits. Practical work is, therefore, made an important 
feature in the course of study, and each student is expected to spend 
a large portion of his time in the laboratories and drawing rooms, or 
in the field. All students receive instruction during the first year in 
rhetoric, including English composition, and in English literature. In 
rhetoric, special attention is paid to diction, construction of sentences, 
figures of rhetoric, and properties of style. In English literature, the 
lives of noted authors are studied, together with selections from their 
most popular writings. In French, during the first year, three hours 
a week are devoted to pronunciation, reading, and the construction of 
the language. 

The study of German extends throughout the second and third 
years. The first year is devoted to acquiring the principles of the 
language ; the second year to translations from scic-ntific German. 
At the end of the third year, the student is expected to have acquired 
n sufiicient knowledge of the languages to be able to use French and 
German scientific works. It is attempted to give every student a 
thorough working knowledge of algebra, trigonometry, and analytical 
geometry, and an elementary knowledge of differential and integral 
calculus. Students who pursue courses in physics, astronomy, or en- 
gineering, in addition, take a more complete course in the calculus, 
and study diff'erential equations and analytical mechanics. Those 
selecting mathematics are directed and assisted in a more extended 
-course of reading. 

Five hours a week are devoted to mathematics during the first three 
years by all students except those of chemistry, who are only required 
to complete the elementary course in calculus. 

Drawing. 

Instruction in mechanical drawing is begun at the beginning of the 
first year, with a series of introductory lectures on the use of drawing 
instruments and materials. 

Descriptive geometry is begun about the middle of December, and 
continued to the close of the second year. This course includes 
orthographic projection, spherical projections, shades, shadows, and 
perspective. 

The graphical work in shades and shadows is also accompanied by 
exercises in tinting and shading with water colors. 

In perspective, after the student has become familiar with the prin- 
ciples, he is required to execute a finished perspective drawing of 
some architectural or engineering design. 

In the third year, instruction is given in stereotomy and in topo- 
n Ed. Com. 



258 Report op the 

graphical mapping. The class take the field under the charge of the 
instructor, and make a complete topographical survey, which em- 
bodies all the methods of work given to the class. 

The map of the survey is plotted from the notes and sketches taken, 
in accordance with the most approved methods in use on the topo- 
graphical works of the United States Corps of Engineers, supple- 
mented by additional lectures and exercises on topographical conven 
tionalizing in ink and colors, and in lettering. 

The civil engineering students continue drawing in connection with 
all their techinal studies. 

Mechanical Engineering. 

The instruction in this department is intended to give a thorough 
theoretical knowledge of such work as the student will be likely to 
have in practice after leaving the school. In addition to this, the 
work is made as practical as possible. 

The instruction is given by means of lectures, recitations, drawing 
and design, laboratory and shopwork. The laboratory work is in- 
tended to be a prominent feature of the course, giving the student 
an opportunity for testing the tensile, compressive and transverse 
strength of materials; the economical use of steam in steam engines 
and boilers, etc. 

Frequent visits are made to the most important manufacturing es- 
tablishments in the vicinity, enabling the student to become familiar 
with the processes of manufacture and the arrangement of machinery 
and shafting, as w^ell as with the mechanism of the machinery itself. 
The students are required to take full notes and make sketches dur- 
ing these excursions. 

Almost all varieties of engineering structures and of manufacturing 
processes (in many cases the most extensive of their kind in this 
country) can be seen in the city, and are available for examination 
and study by the students : \ 

The work is briefly as follows : 

Second year — Elements of mechanism. 

Third year — Tiiermodynamics, steam boilers, steam engine. 

Fourth year — Hydromechanics, applied mechanics, tall chimney construction, 
mill engineering. 

Drawiyig and Design.— In the second year the students make complete working 
drawings from sketches and dimensions that they themselves have taken directly 
from machinery. 

Tracings are made of all drawings, and copied by the*' blue process." During 
the tliird and fourth years the students will design several machines, including a 
lathe, boiler, steam engine, etc. 

Laboratory Work. — The laboratory work in this department is intended to give 
to the students practice in such experimental Avork as they are liable to undertake 
alter leaving the school, and to instil into their minds correct methods of research 
and original investigation. The work to be done consists of tests of the strength of 
materials, evaporative power and efficiency of boilers, steam engine toslp, showing 
their economy in the use of steam under various loads, cut-offs, speeds, etc.; calori- 
meter and condenser tests, etc. 



Industrial Education Commisskin. 259 

Shop TFor^'.— Enough shop work is required ofthe students to enable them to be- 
come familiar with the more common tools used in modern work. The shops are 
supplied with all tools and machinery needed to accommodate the students. The 
second year work consists of pattern making, in which the students not only become 
familiar with the tools and appliances used in the work, but are expected to under- 
stand how all ordinary patterns should be made so as to be most easily molded. 
The third year consists of blacksmithing, chipping and tiling, and the fourth 
year of work in the machine shop, with lathe, shaper, drill, etc. 

3. Cleveland Manual Training School. 

In February, 1885, a small carpenter shop was started in a barn sit- 
uated on Kennard street, near Euclid avenue, for the benefit of some 
boys, then pupils in the Central High School. Through the diligence 
and enthusiasm of those boys the little school and the value ofmanual 
training was brought to the notice of some of the business men of the 
city. One or two meetings were held, at which the question of the es- 
tablishment of a manual training school in Cleveland was thoroughly 
discussed. It was decided to form a stock company with a capital of 
$25,000, with which money to erect and equip a building, and then to 
charge a tuition fee just sufficient to cover the running expenses. 

The Cleveland Manual Training School Company was incorporated 
June 2, 18S5, for the purpose (as stated in its articles of incorporation) 
of " the promotion of education, and especially the establishment and 
maintenance of a school of manual training, where pupils shall be 
taught the use of tools and materials, and instruction shall be given 
in mechanics, physics, chemistry and mechanical drawing." 

" The training of the mind is as much an essential of this school as 
it is in the high, grammar or primary schools. In this the ability of 
the mind to conceive, plan and carry out a measure is shown through 
dexterity in execution. The solution of problems in mechanical draw- 
ing ; tlie reduction of a piece of lumber from its rough into a perfect" 
model ; the hammering of a crude piece of iron into a definite shape 
and size ; the adjustment of the several parts of a piece of mechan- 
ism, more or less complicated ; the study of a complete machine of 
any kind with reference to the discovery of the general design, the 
adaptability and specific uses of its various parts, its points of weak- 
nesses, etc., all this requires the exercise of the mental faculties just as 
clearly, persistently and profitably as is required in the study of lan- 
guage, mathematics or science. It is not proposed that this shall take 
the place of anything else. It affords a peculiar exercise of the mem- 
tal faculties which no other study affords or can afford. Neither is it 
intended that any trade shall be taught, as is clearly shown in the 
course of study pursued." 

The members of the company met on September 7, 1885, and elected 
a board of directors. The scliool was opened for pupils early in 
February, 1886. Soon after this, on petition of the board of educa. 
tion, the State Legislature passed an act authorizing the levying of a 



260 Report op the 



tax of one-fifth of one mill for manual and domestic training purposes. 
Thip tax amounts to about $16,000. The incorporated company owning 
the building gave the board of education the free use of this building, 
machinery, etc. Tuition is free to public school pupils. 

Applicants for admission to the school must be at least fourteen 
years of age, and be of such school grade or have acquirements equiv- 
alent to those required for admission to the city high schools. 

Pupils are admitted upon certificates of school standing, showing 
them to be of the required grade, in any school in Cleveland. If no 
certificate is given, the applicant is given a written examination. 

Course of Study. 

First Year. 
Free-hand and Mechanical Drawing, Carpentry and Joining, Patternmaking, Care 
and Use of Tools. 

Second Year. 
Geometrical and Mechanical Drawing, Forging, Welding, Tempering, Filing and 
Chipping. 

Third Year. 
Machine and Agricultural Drawing, Machine Shop W^ork, Study of Machines 
Steam Engines and Boilers. 

Pupils attend the school three times each week, each lesson lasting 
three hours. Two lessons are spent in the shop work and one in draw- 
ing. All pass through the same course, which is progressively arranged, 
so that each department may be considered a preparation for the next. 
The pupil begins with the simplest tools and work, and passes by de- 
grees to the more complex and difficult. The aim in each department 
is not to teach the boy to construct any special object, but to make 
such pieces as will enable him to master, as quickly as possible, the 
difficult processes. 

Results. 

The interest which the boys take in the shop school is very 
great. That more than four-fifths of the pupils asked permission to 
work in the shops during the vacation at Thanksgiving, and nearly 
as many at Christmas, is sufficient proof of this statement. 

The influence upon the general character of the pupils is well 
shown by the following extracts from letters : 

^' By having pleasant and profitable employment a certain number 
of hours each week, these pupils acquire a new interest in their 
studies. They are fully sustaining their former rank in scholarship, 
and more. I believe also that there is a great gain in the matter of 
discipline. The influence of your school upon the morality of these 
pupils is certainly very commendable." 

" A mutual friend and public educator asked me the other day 
what the influence of manual training school was upon the high 
school pupils who attended it. I told him — and the same may en- 



Industrial Education Commission. 261 

courage you — that it was beneficial in many ways. Many of the boys 
are in my classes and I find them among the best prepared always, 
and always the most practical. I certainly think discipline is easier 
from the influence of that school." 

The following articles were made by the pupils during the year, 
1886, in addition to the regular pieces of the course : Book shelves, 
screen doors, mariner's compass, center tables, hat rack, pastry screen, 
milk stool, foot stools, easels, Indian clubs, ball bats, picture frames, 
cabinet. 

" The habit of working from drawings and to nice measurements, 
has given the students a confidence in themselves altogether new. 
This is shown in the readiness with which they undertake the execu- 
tion of small commissions in behalf of the school, and the handiness 
which they display at home. In fact the increased usefulness of the 
students still in the school is making itself felt, and in several in- 
stances the result has been the off'er of business positions too tempt- 
ing to be rejected. This drawback, if it can be called one, the school 
must always sufi'er. The better educated and trained our students 
become, the stronger will be the temptation off'ered to them outside, 
and the more diflicult it will be for us to hold them through the 
course. Parents and guardians should avoid the bad policy of injur- 
ing the prospects of a promising young man by grasping a small pres- 
ent pecuniary advantage at the cost of far greater rewards in the 
tuture. From the testimony of parents the physical, intellectual, 
and moral effect of the school is exceedingly satisfactory." 

The report of the president of the Cleveland board of education for 
the year ending August 31, 1887, says : 

" There are at present attending, about one hundred and twenty- 
five boys ; and to show the growing interest in the school it may be 
cited that out of seventy-five boys who began their course in the cen- 
tral high school in the winter term of 1888, forty-eight of them at the 
same time began to take a course in the manual training school. The 
purposes of the school are lofty, and as has been said time and again, to 
teach the American boy the value of labor, its true worth and dignity, 
to show the mutual need of labor for capital and capital for labor, to 
teach each to respect the other; this is the chief aim and end of the 
school. It does not seek to teach trades ; it only teaches how to use 
tools. It does not say that every boy who learns to use those tools 
shall become a machinist and toiler in the work shop ; but if he should 
find himself adapted to such uses and purposes, it pats him on the 
high road toward the best attainment thereof." 

4. The Toledo Manual Training School. 

The Toledo manual training school was established under the pro- 
vision of an ordinance unanimously adopted by the common council 



262 Report of the 

of the city of Toledo, March 18, 1884, and is maintained under the 
joint control of the board of education, and the directors of the 
Toledo University. 

Instruction in the work shops and in tree- hand and mechanical 
drawing, is furnished by the university board, while the intellectual 
studies which must go hand in hand with the development of manual 
training are furnished in the public school, in the prescribed gram- 
laar and high school courses. 

The practical effect of the united action of these two boards, is to 
so enlarge the scope of public instruction in Toledo, as represented 
by the grammar and high school, as to include instruction in the prac- 
tical arts, together with free-hand and mechanical drawing. The 
course, including this instruction, is known as the manual training 
school course. 

The work of the school began October 1, 1884, in rooms in the high 
school building. The new building was opened December 5, 1885. 

The object of the manual training school is to furnish instruction 
and practice in the use of tools, with such instruction as is deemed 
necessary in mathematics, draAving, and the English branches of a 
high school course. The tool instruction includes carpentry, wood 
turning, patternmaking, iron chipping and filing, forge work, braz- 
ing and soldering, the use of machine shop tools, and such other in- 
struction of a similar character as may be deemed advisable to add to 
the foregoing from time to time, it being the intention to divide the 
working hours of the student, as nearly as possible, equally between 
manual and mental exercises. 

The manual training school clearly recognizes the preeminent value 
and necessity of intellectual development and discipline. This 
school exacts close and thoughtful study with book as well as with 
tools. It proposes, by lengthening the usual school dsty a full hour, 
and by abridging somewhat the number of daily recitations, to find 
time for drawing and tool-work, and thus to secure a more liberal in- 
tellectual and physical development — a more symmetrical education. 

" One great object of the school is to foster a higher appreciation 
of the value and dignity of intelligent labor, and the worth and re 
spectability of laboring men. A boy who sees nothing in manual 
labor but mere brute force, despises both the labor and the laborer. 
With the acquisition of skill in himself, comes the ability and will- 
ingness to recognize skill in his fellows. When once he appreciates 
skill in handicraft, he regards the workman with sympathy and re- 
spect. 

" All the shop-work is disciplinary ; special trades will not be taught, 
nor will articles be manufactured for sale. 

'' The scope of a single trade is too narrow for educational purposes. 
Manual education should be as broad and liberal as intellectual- A 
shop which manufactures for the market, and expects a revenue from 



Industrial Education Commission. 263 

bhe sale of its products, is necessarily confined to salable work, and a 
systematic and progressive series of lessons is impossible, except at 
great cost. If the object of the shop is education, a student should 
be allowed to discontinue any task or process the moment he has 
learned to do it well. If the shop were intended to make money, the 
students would be kept at work on what they could do best, at the 
expense of breadth and versatility. 

'* In manual education, the desired end is the acquirement of skill in 
(he use of tools and materials, and not the production of specific 
articles; hence we abstract all the mechanical processes and manual 
arts and typical tools of the trades and occupations of men, arrange a 
systematic course of instruction in the same, and then incorporate it 
in our system of education. Thus, without teaching any one trade, 
we teach the essential mechanical principals of all." 

'^ Pupils of the Toledo public schools are entitled to enter the manual 
training department when they reach the senior grammar, or junior 
high school grades. 

" Pupils of private or parochial schools are entitled to enter if they 
are qualified for, and pursue a course of study corresponding in grade 
to that taken b}^ the regular pupils in the senior grammar and high 
schools grades. 

"No pupils are admitted under thirteen years of age. 

"Applicants (except those who enter through the grammar and 
high schools) must pass a good examination in the following studies: 

"In spelling, writing and punctuation, penmanship and the use of 
capitals, in grammar to syntax, and in correct forms of expression in 
writing ; arithmetic to equation of payments, tables of weights and 
measures and their uses ; common school geography ; the history of 
the United States. 

"For the residents of Toledo instruction in the manual training 
school is free as in the other schools ; a small charge for material only 
being made as follows : The first year $6 ; the second, third and fourth 
years $9 each. 

" For non-residents of Toledo, tuition is payable as follows : 

" First year $45. Second year $60. Third year $75. Fourth year 



The combined course of instruction covers four years, and the 
school time of the pupil is about equally divided between mental and 
manual exercises. One hour per day is given to drawing, and two 
hours to shop work. 

The course of study embraces five parallel lines — three intellectual 
and two manual, as follows : 

First. — A course of pure mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, 
geometry, and plane trigonometry. 

Second. — A course in science and applied mathematics, including 



264 Report of the 

physical geography, natural philosophy, chemistry, mechanics, men- 
suration and book-keeping. 

Third. — A course in language and literature, including English 
grammar, spelling, composition, literature, history and the elements of 
political science and economy. 

Fourth. — A course in penmanship, free-hand and mechanical draw- 
ing. 

Fifth. — (1) A course of tool instruction, including carpentry ,wood- 
turning, forging, soldering and bench and machine work in iron. (2) 
Instruction in domestic economy, including cookery, garment cutting 
and making, clay modeling, wood carving, etc. 

Students have no option or election as to particular studies ; each 
must conform to the course as laid down and take every branch in its 
order. 

The arrangement of studies and shop work by years is substantially 
as follows, subject to such changes as experience may dictate : 

First Year. 

Senior Grammar School — (1) Mathematics. — Arithmetic. 

(2) Science. — Physical Geography. 

(3) Language. — Grammar, Spelling, Writing, English 

Composition. 
Manual Training School— (4) Drawing. — Free-hand and Mechanical Lettering. 

(5) Shop Work. — Carpentry, Joining, Jig Sawing, proper 
care and use of tools. 

Second Year. 

Junior Tligh School — (1) Mathematics. — Algebra, Arithmetic. 

(2) Science. — Physiology and Botany. 

(3) Layiguage. — Grammar, Rhetoric, Writing. 
Manual Training School — (4) Drawing. — Free-hand and Mechanical, Designs for 

Wood-carving. 
(5) Shop Work. — Wood-turning, Pattern making, Wood- 
carving, Clay Modeling. 

Third Year. 

Middle High School — (1) Jfa^/iemrr.ifics.— Geometry, Arithmetic Reviewed. 

(2) Science. — Physics. 

(3) Language. — English Composition, History. 
Manual Training School — (4) Drawing. — Free-hand and Architectural, Designing 

from Plant and Leaf Forms. 
(5) Shop Work. — Forging, Welding, Tempering, Brazing 
and Soldering, Molding arid Casting. 

Fourth Year. 

Senior High School. — (1) Mathematics. — Plane Trigonometry, Mechanics. 

(2) Science. — Chemistry, Book-keeping, Ethics ; Rights 

and Duties ; Laws of Right Conduct. 

(3) Language. — Political Economy, English Literature 

and Composition. 
Manual Training School — (4) Drawing. — Machine and Architectural Details, Deco- 
rative Designing. 



Industrial Education Commission. 265 

Manual Training School — (5) Machine Shop Work. — Chipping, Filing, Turning 

Drilling, Planing,etc., Study 
of Machinery, Careoi' Steam 
Engine and Boilers, Study 
of Electrical Machinerj^ and 
Gas Engines. 
In the first year German may be taken in place of physical geography ; in the sec- 
ond year in the place of rhetoric or physiology ; in the third year in the place of his- 
tory ; in the fourth year in the place of English literature. 

Instruction in mechanical drawing is somewhat abridged for pupils who may 
prefer a wider range in free-hand and decorative work. 

Instructions will be given each year in the properties of the materials (wood, iron, 
brass, etc..) used that year. 

Throughout the course forty-five minutes per day are given to draw- 
ing and ninety minutes per day to shop work. The remainder of the 
school day is devoted to study and recitation. Each pupil must recite 
daily three lessons, which must mainly be learned at home. It is ex- 
pected that the scholarship of the pupils willbefully equal to the best 
high school standards. A diploma is given on graduation by the uni 
versity directors in addition to the regular diploma for high school work. 

Latin, French and German are optional studies. 

The original purpose was to limit the manual training school course 
to three years and to make such peiiod conform to the three high 
school years. Experience has shown, however, that manual instruc- 
tion is equally valuable to boys of the grammar school grade, and 
therefore the course has now been arranged to include the senior 
grammar school year. But the time required of such pupils in the 
work shops is somewhat abridged. 

Ambitious boys, who are sufficiently advanced to enter the high 
school are admitted to the work of the second year, provided they 
signify a purpose to complete the course and are willing to devote 
some extra time to laboratory work to cover the exercises of the first 
year. 

Drawing. 

The course in drawing embraces three general divisions : 

1. Free-hand drawing^ designed to educate the sense of form and 
proportion ; to teach the eye to observe accurately, and to train the 
hand to rapidly delineate the forms either of existing objects or oi' 
ideals in the mind. 

2. Mechanical d-rawing^ including the use of instruments ; geomet 
ric ^construction ; the arrangements of projections, elevations, plans 
and sections; also the various methods of producing shades and 
shadows with pen or brush. 

3. Technical drawing or draughting^ illustrating conventional 
colors and signs ; systems of architectural or shop drawings; and at 
the same time familiarizing the pupil with the proportions and de- 
tails of various classes of machines and structures. 



266 Keport of the 

It comprises the following : 

First Year. — Principles of projection drawing; free-hand elevation, plans and 
sections of various objects; the use of drawing tools, including practice in pen- 
lining, etc.,; worliing drawings to scale, including plans, elevations, sections and 
details of various machines and parts of machines ; lettering ; free-hand perspective 
in outline from objects. 

Second Year. — Geometrical construction ; problems in oblique orthographic pro- 
section ; water coloring in washes ; development of surfaces as applied to sheet 
metal patternwork ; isometric projection ; free-hand perspective in light and shade 
from objects. 

Tldrd Year. — Pen lino shading ; projection of shadows ; mechanical perspective; 
architectural workin g drawings including plans, elevations, sections perspective 
and details of building and building construction ; free-hand drawing as applied to 
architectural ornamentation and enrichment 

Fourth Year. — Water color shading ; machine design and construction; machine 
drawing, including the laying out of trains of gearing, etc. ; geometrical ornamenta- 
tion, and the elements of decorative art work ; free-hand drawing from casts ; pen 
sketching. 

The shop instruction is given similarly to laboratory lectures. The 
instructor at the bench, machine, or anvil, executes in the presence 
of the whole class the day's lesson, giving all needed information, and 
at times using the blackboard. When necessary the pupils make 
notes and sketches (working drawings), and questions are asked and 
answered, that all obscurities may be removed. The class then pro- 
ceeds to the execution of the task, leaving the instructor to give ad- 
ditional help to such as need it. At a specified time the lesson ceases, 
and the work is brought in, commended on and marked. It is not 
necessary that the work assigned should be finished ; the essential 
thing is that it should be well begun and carried on v/ith resolute 
speed and accuracy. 

" The time spent in shop-work has never exceeded one and a half 
hours per day, unless the boys have voluntarily remained after hours 
for additional practice. Moreover, from these two hours should be 
substracted fully ten minutes for washing, dressing, etc. A week, 
therefore, represents less than eight hours of actual work in a shop. 
Hence, in placing a value upon the time spent, as men count lime, it 
should be remembered that a 'day's work' is all the boys have per 
week. For carpentry and wood turning they have three hundred 
hours, or thirty days in all; in forging, molding, brazing and solder 
ing, during the second year, three hundred hours. While this time is 
ample to furnish an intelligent idea of tools and their uses, of the 
laws of mechanism, of the properties of wood, iron, steel and brass, 
and the meaning and force of mechanical words and technical terms, 
yet it is not so great as to exhaust the boy physically, or to. be incom- 
patible with a high degree of proficiency in his purely intellectual 
studies. 

'^The zeal and enthusiasm of the students have been developed to a 
mostgratiryingextent,extendinginto all the departments of work- The 
variety offered by the daily programme has had the moral and intellect- 



Industrial Education Commission. 267 

ual effect expected, and an unusual degree of sober earnestness has been 
shown. The wholesome moral effect of a course of training which 
interests and stimulates the ardor of the student is most marked. 
Parents observe the beneficial influence of occupation. The sugges- 
tions of the day fill the mind with healthy thoughts and appetites 
during ihe leisure hour?. Success in drawing or workshop has often 
had the efi'ect of arousing the ambition in mathematics and history, 
and vice versa. Gradually the students acquire two most valuable 
habits which are certain to influence their whole lives, namely : pre- 
cision and method. 

•' The habit of working from drawings and to nice measurements has 
given the students a confidence in themselves altogether new. This 
is shown in the readiness with which they undertake the execution of 
small commissions in behalf of the school, and the handiness which 
they display at home. 

''From the testimony of parents, the physical, intellectual, and 
moral effect of the school is exceedingly satistactory." 

Upon the recommendation of the superintendent, graduates of the 
manual training school will be admitted without examination and 
free of condition to the School of Mechanics and Engineering of Mich- 
igan Univer&itT, Ann Arbor, Mich. ; Sibley College, Cornell Univer- 
sity, Ithaca, N. Y. ; School of Mechanics and Engineering, Ohio 
State University, Columbus, Ohio. 

Evening Classes. 

An evening department is also maintained under the joint control 
of the board of education and the manual training school directors. 

This school has been organized to meet the demand of a large num- 
ber of young people whose occupations absorb the hours of the day, 
but who desire to devote a portion of their evenings to further study 
in elementary and technical subjects. 

The course of instruction is graded to conform to the needs of the 
pupils, and will be advanced from year to year as the classes make 
progress. Scientific and technical subjects are illustrated by lectures, 
drawings and appropriate apparatus. Pupils are not required to take 
the full course, but are allowed to elect such topics as meet their 
tastes or have a direct bearing upon their occupations. 

Thus far instruction in the evening classes has been confined to 
mathematics, physics and drawing. " It is now proposed to give the 
evening school a wider scope, and to cover the topics of the day schools 
so far as a demand for such instruction shall be made to appear, upon 
application of a sufficient number of pupils. No class will be organ- 
ized until it shall be made to appear to the satisfaction of the Super- 
intendent of Public Schools that not less than twenty pupils will give 
continuous attendance upon the course of instruction demanded. Upon 
such application and information classes will be organized and in- 



2«8 



Report of the 



straction given by lectures and otherwise, as indicated by the follow- 
ing schedule: 

Term of Six Months. 



Subjects of Study. 



Arithmetic — Filementary, 

Interiiiediate, 

Advanced, 

Algebra, 

American History, 

Book-keeping, 

Building Construction, 

Botany, 

Drawing — Free-hand, Architectural, Mechanical, Orna- 
mental, 

Debating and Literary Society, 

English Grammar, . . . ." 

Experimental Physics — Light, Heat, Sound, Electricity 
and Magnetism, ... . . . 

Ethics — Rights and Duties. The Laws of Right Conduct. 

Geography, 

Geology, 

Geometry, 

German— Beginners, Elementary, Advanced, 

Machine Construction, 

Mechanics, Applied. — The Scientific Principles relating to 
Mechanical Operations, Mechan- 
ism and Machinery, ... 

Mechanics, Theoretical.— Statics, Dynamic, Hydrostatics 
and Pneumatics, 

Physiology, 

Physical Geography, 

Political Economy, 

Science of Government — Civics, Constitutional History, 
etc., 

Writing and Reading. 



Evenings. 


Hours. 


Thursday. 


7Uo 8| 


Friday. 


8ito 9i 


Thursday. 


81 to 9| 


Friday. 


7ito 8i 


Monday. 


71 to 81 


Tuesday. 


71 to 81 


Tuesday. 


81 to 91 


Monday. 


81 to 91 


^ Monday and 
) Tuesday. 


|7ito 91 


Tuesday. 


81 to 10 


Friday. 


81 to 91 


Thursday. 


8|to 91 


Thursday. 


81 to 91 


Thursday. 


71 to 81 


Friday. 


71 to 91 


Tuesday. 


81 to 91 


Monday. 


81 to 91 


Monday. 


71 to 81 


Thursday. 


81 to 91 


Thursday. 


7§ to 91 


Friday. 


82 to 91 


Friday. 


72 to 81 


Frida5^ 


81 to 91 



The instruction in drawing is of especial value to carpenters, 
joineis, wood workers, masons, bricklayers, painters, plasterers, and 
includes the study of original designs as applied to manufacture of 
furniture, ornamental iron work, wall and ceiling decorations, etc. 

Brief lectures are given from time to time upon important topics, 
viz : 

Construction, practical geometrical problems ; how to use the T-square, set square 
and drawing instruments, bisecting of lines ; how to draw and indicate center lines, 
radical lines and dimension lines, etc., line shading, brush shading, scale drawing, 
detail drawing ; how to construct scales, how to proportion and draw hexagon and 
square nuts, projection of plain objects, construction of block letters, plain and 
oblique projection ; how to indicate the section of different materials, free-hand 
sketching, styles of architecture, the orders, details, perspective, sketching, scale 
drawing, sheet metal, pattern work, projection shading, perspective and perspective 
shading. 

"These lectures, accompanied by drawing and illustrations upon 
the blackboard, imj^art instruction that requires years of experience 
in the workshop to supply." 

October 1, 1884, the first class numbered sixty pupils — fifty boys 
and ten girls. 



Industrial Education Commission. 269 

The second annual report of the school, under date of January 1, 
1887, says: 

'' The attendance upon the manual training school is optional, yet 
the day classes now number 150; and the evening classes 50; and in 
addition a number of post graduates of the high school are availing 
themselves of the instruction furnished in the department of domestic 
economy. 

'• The interest in the work of this school continues to increase, and 
it is belived that each year the classes will increase in numbers. 
Other communities have been watching the example of Toledo with 
great interest. The letters of inquiry and personal visits from all 
sections of the country indicate the widespread interest in the manual 
training school movement. This is further evidenced by the atten- 
tion which this topic has received in the leading magazines and news- 
papers during the past year. Many of our most conservative thinkers 
regard this practical instruction furnished to all the children of the 
State and within the reach of all, as one of the most promising factors 
in the solution of social problems." 



270 Report of the 



XVIII. PENNSYLVANIA. 



1. Carlisle Indian School. 



The following account of this school was prepared for the Commis 
vion by the superintendent, Capt. R. H. Pratt, U. 8. Army, whose re- 
markable success in the training of uncivilized Indian youth is a val- 
uable contribution to sociological as well as educational science. The 
part played by manual training in the methods of the school is by no 
means its least important or least interesting feature : 

" Industrial education as practiced at this school presents some 
features not usually found in the trade school, for instance, our pupils 
have as beginners generally such as an imperfect knowledge of the 
English language, that instruction by any course of lessons with ex- 
planation of process or methods is well nigh out of the question. Of 
necessity therefore skill in any manual occupation has to be mainly 
acquired by observation and practice. 

"As a consequence of these conditions the education obtained is 
wholly practical, shoemaking is taught by making shoes, tinning by 
making tinware, carpentering by working with carpenters at what- 
ever building operations are in progress or such joiners' work as may 
be necessary, and so on through all the departments operated. 

''Not only is this system the only one open to us, but is in the case 
of undisciplined, uneducated minds the best system to pursue. There 
is not the mental ability to appreciate a progressive technical course 
of operations or processes, valuable only as leading to a desired 
mechanical knowledge and which also depends much tor their useful- 
ness or oral instruction given ; but the lowest intellect derives satis- 
faction and encouragement from being able to produce something 
complete, as a tin cup, a pair of shoes, a horseshoe, or a table, etc. 

" The ability once acquired to produce a complete article, all that 
remains to be done is to strive for excellence by passing on to the 
more difficult operations in each trade. 

'^ As a consequence of this method the labor of the pupil becomes at 
once productive, for instance we make all the shoes needed for the 
school, do all the shoe repairs, make all the clothing for both boys 
and girls, make for the Government large quantities of tinware, har- 
ness and wagons — print two papers; a weekly with a circulation of 
6,000, and a monthly of about 3,000, do a large quantity of miscel- 
laneous printing, do almost all the steam fitting and pipe work of the 
premises, care for the steam boilers, and farm 300 acres of land with 
the aid only of a head to each department ; and in addition place out 



Industrial Education Commission. 271 

during the summer season from 200 to 300 of our students as farmers' 
helps. 

'' In all of this work there is good business experience for the student; 
large quantities of raw material have to be handled, weighed, tested, 
as to quality and stored — Government contracts have to be filled in 
a given time, with goods of a uniform grade, which have to be packed, 
weighed, marked and shipped to the different points required, so that 
there are many more avenues for instruction in that which an Indian 
or any youth should know by a system which looks to the manufac- 
ture of merchantable articles over one that merely instructs, but does 
not produce. 

•' In carrying on this education, simultaneously with a literary, we 
have found that a half day at school and a half d ly at labor has given 
the best results. All departments are organized with two complete 
sets of pupils, one being at school when the other is at work so a 
teacher has two schools, a mechauical instructor two sets of ap- 
prentices. 

'• By this method the instructors in all departments have smaller 
numbers under their care at any one time and are better able to give 
individual attention. 

"Under the system outlined there have been under instruction during the school 
year 1SS8-0 boys as follows, viz : 



At blacksmith and Avagon work, ... 16 

At shoemaking, 36 

At printing, 18 

Atharnessmaking, 33 

At steam pipe work, 10 

At baking, , . 4 



At carpentering, 23 

At tinning, • 8 

At tailoring, 35 

At painting, 8 

At farming, 301 

At care of boilers, 4 



" The girls are instructed in all that pertains to household and laun- 
dry work, plain sewing, dressmaking, cooking and some tailoring, but 
nothing has been attempted for the girls aside from these usual and 
necessary lines. 

" In all of the various departments of girls' work excellence is at- 
tained by some, and a good degree of proficiency by all. The same 
system of half a day at work and half a day at study is pursued as 
with the boys. 

'' As the students advance a small per diem is paid for the work done. 
These payments are made in a graduated scale as follows, viz : For 
the first four months there is no pay, then at the rate of 8 cents per 
day for the first year, 12 cents for the second year, and 24 cents, the 
highest attainable, for the third year and after, and in the heavy work 
of the farm in summer, 24 cents per day. This in the a2:gregate is 
not a heav}^ amount, but small as it is, it wonderfully increases the 
desire of the student to learn a trade, and enables us to teach the 
value of money and economy in its uses, and also constitutes an im- 
portant element of control. 

" Experience has demonstrated that literary progress is almost as 



272 Report of the 

great under the half day system with an evening study hour as by 
having all day at study, while the gain to our class of pupils in other 
ways is of inestimable value. Then, too, surplus energy and the de- 
sire for mischievous pranks are much modified by a half day's hard 
work, a feature worth considering where there are several hundred 
young men to be controlled. 

" On the health of the pupils, industrial training has great value. 
Wielding a sledge hammer or sawing an oak plank will stand in rea- 
sonably good stead for the sparring or rowing of the college athlete. 

" The industrial feature of the school has also another element of 
value in that it tends to preserve an equilibrium between the abstract 
and the actual in education. It is practical application of the lessons 
of the school room now, and at not some future time; it also gives the 
student an advantage by opening another avenue for excellence 
which he may pursue simultaneously with his scholastic work ; the 
dull student has a chance to achieve honorable success in a different 
direction, and at the end of the five years' school course the pupil 
may be well enough equipped in his chosen trade to enter the labor 
market and make his own living, providing he is not barred by some 
of the many oppressive trade organizations." 



2. Haverford College. 

A machine shop was established in 1884. It is equipped with all 
the tools necessary for instruction in carpenters' and machinists' work, 
including hand and machine lathes, planer, shaper, drill press, forge, 
vises, etc., with a ten horse-power steam engine and boiler. 

*' The work in the shop is conducted b}^ means of progressive exer- 
cises, combining the principles met with in machine construction. 

" The students, under the care of the director, are taken to visit 
machine shops and engineering constructions in Philadelphia and its 
vicinity." 

3. Girard College. 

The following statement is condensed from successive annual re- 
ports of the board of trustees : 

Very soon after the organization of the college the great impor- 
tance of more instruction for the boys in the use of tools became 
apparent. In 1848 a committee of the board of directors recom- 
mended in the strongest language some mechanical mstruction, but 
from some cause, no satisfactory teaching was then introduced. 

The executive committee in April, 1873, recommended that the 
trades of manufacturing paper boxes and tinware should be taught, 
but this was not adopted. 

It was not until the year 1881, after great deliberation and an elab- 



Industrial Education Commission. 273 

orate report from a special coramittee, that the board carefully 
considering three plans suggested to them, Firsts establishing ma- 
chine shops in connection with the school ; Seconds a large establish- 
ment with various tools and appliances suitable to many trades, with 
competent instructors in each branch ; Thirds elementary instruc- 
tions only: not to teach a trade nor secure a product, but to train the 
pupil in the use of tools — instruction not construction, in fact the 
Russian system ; adopted the last, as not only the most economical, 
but best adapted to introduction into the college ; the first two plans 
being not only expensive, but in the opinion of some members of the 
board, not in accordance with the scheme of instruction prescribed by 
Mr. Girard for the education ol his beneficiaries. 

Early in the spring of 1882, mechanical instruction was begun. 
Even then, however, only tentatively and in the single branch of metal 
working. This trial was so satisfactory that in 1883 an appropriation 
was made for erecting a commodious and properly constructed build- 
ing for a greater variety of technical teaching. This school building, 
placed in the north-west part of the college grounds, is fifty -five feet 
wide by one hundred and fifty-five feet in length, two stories high, 
and compares in its details of construction with the best models of 
workshops of this character. The building was finished in December, 
1884, and formally opened with appropriate ceremonies on the 9th 
of that month. Before the building was completed, elementary in 
struction in wood work was introduced. 

On the 9th of December, 1884, more extensive workshops having 
been provided, teaching the use of tools on wood-work was intro- 
duced, and this has been again supplemented by the erection of a 
suitable building for a smith shop and foundry, in which branches 
the pupils are also instructed. Mechanical and geometrical drawing 
are now taught likewise. It is not our intention to extend this branch 
of instruction any farther, unless so directed by the light of experi- 
ence. We believe that all of these are necessary to equip a lad to go 
out from the college and take his place among the young mechanics 
of our country. While each study is taught to every pupil old enough 
to handle tools, careful supervision by the master soon discovers the 
particular branch in which each seems to display most capacity ; to 
which after he has gone through the whole curriculum, he is per- 
mitted to devote most of his attention during the residue of his stay 
in the college. 

Students are taught the use of tools and how to handle them in the 
work shop as they are taught to read, write and cipher in the school 
rooms ; the one course enabling them to become clerks, book keepers, 
conveyancers; the other, machinists, furnituremakers, blacksmiths, 
cabinetmakers, locksmiths, and to obtain employment in kindred 
trades. 

18 Ed. Com. 



274 Repokt of the 

Plan of Instruction. 

The plan of instruction proposed to accomplish this end is to com- 
mence with the draughting room, where the beginner is required to 
make a drawing of some simple article or piece of machinery, which 
he then takes to the wood-working and turning department and works 
out as a model for the foundry, where he is taught to cast it in metal. 
From the foundry he takes his casting to the metal bench and there 
completes it for the purpose of its design. This finished he begms 
again with some more complicated piece of work in the daughting 
room, going through the same routine again and again until draughts- 
man, wood-worker, turner, forger and skilled worker in metal he 
either goes out into the world competent to earn his living, at least in 
some one of these employments; or if, in the judgement of the super- 
intendent, the lad, still under eighteen years of age, is sufficiently in- 
structed in each branch, and shows a preference for one, and has not 
yet found a suitable place, he may be permitted to make himself more 
perfect in that one which he prefers. 

Our introduction of this mechanical instruction seems almost provi- 
dential in view of the scareness of apprenticeships. Up to almost 
the end of the year 1884 metal work alone was taught, and during 
that year only about one- third of the boys who left college entered 
into mechanical pursuits; of those who left during 1885, and since 
instruction in ordinary wood work and turning has been introduced, 
two-thirds have obtained work in mechanical occupations. 

4. The Philadelphia Manual Training School. 

" The Philadelphia Manual Training School " was opened in Sep- 
tember, 1885, with about one hundred and twenty-five pupils. 

The object of the school as stated in the second annual catalogue '^ is 
the education of all the faculties. ' The whole boy is put to school.' 
He learns to do by doing, and the manual training school thus edu- 
cates men who shall combine in one person the thinker and the doer. 

" It is not to be supposed that pupils enter the school merely for 
the purpose of becoming mechanics. The school has a far broader 
aim than to prepare students for particular trades. Manual training 
is a means of developing to a high degree certain faculties such as 
observation and judgment; and, given with the other studies named 
above, it secures a truly liberal, intellectual and physical development 
— a more symmetrical education. It tends, also, to foster a higher 
appreciation of the value and dignity of intelligent labor, audits moral 
influence is immediate and wholesome." 

The school aff'ords to students who have finished the ordinary gram- 
mar school course an opportunity to continue the literary, scientific 
and mathematical studies, and also to receive a thorough course in 
drawing and in the use and application of tools in the industrial arts. 



Industrial Education Commission. 275 

Promotions to the manual training school are made from the twelfth 
grade of the boys' grammer, consolidated and combined schools ; but 
no boy is promoted who is under thirteen years of age. 

Admission. 

The examination for promotion includes reading, spelling, grammar 
and composition, penmanship, arithmetic, geography. United States 
history and civil government, science lessons, drawing. 

A minimum average of 50 per cent, is required in reading, language 
and arithmetic, and a general average of 65 per cent, in all branches. 

The number of pupils admitted from any school is the pro rata of 
the number from that school who pass the required examination to 
the whole number who can be received into the manual training school. 
Schools having more pupils who have passed the examination than 
can be received have their respective surplus number of pupils ad- 
mitted ^ro rata to the aggregate number of vacancies in the manual 
training school as the same may occur. 

The pupils of each school are admitted in the order of their averages. 

The combined course of study covers three years, and the school- 
time of the pupils is about equally divided between mental and 
manual exercises. One hour per day is given to drawing, two hours 
to shop work and three hours to the usual academic studies. 

The course of study embraces five parallel lines, as follows : 

First. A course in language and literature, including the structure 
and use of English, composition, literature, history, social science and 
German. 

Second. A course in science and applied mathematics, including 
geology, physics, chemistry, physiology, economic botany, mechanics, 
steam and electrical engineering, mensuration, book-keeping and 
surveying. 

Third. A course in pure mathematics, including arithmetic, geom- 
etry, algebra and plane trigonometry. 

Fourth., A course in free-hand, mechanical and architectural draw- 
ing, designing and modeling. 

Fifth, A course of tool instruction, including joinery, pattern- 
making, wood turning, wood-carving, modeling, forging, soldering, 
brazing, molding and casting, vise work and mechanical construction. 

The care taken to avoid narrowness of training is well shown by 
the method of teaching history. 

*' History is taught in its principles and applications. Special at- 
tention is given to the development of free governments, the progress 
of civilization, the westward course of empire, industries and inven- 
tions, the origin of American laws and customs, the recognition of 
human rights, the empire of religion and morality, and the relations 
of man and men. 

*' In American History .^ the nation is the chief theme. By text book 



276 Report op the 

and by standard authorities, by library and by newspaper, by lectures 
and by political and industrial maps, the pupil studies the nation. 
The object of the instruction is to acquaint the pupil with the nature 
of the institutions, laws and customs of his native land, and to incul- 
cate sound views of his duty as a citizen. 

" General History. Text book — Barnes — ( Second year). 

'* Special study of the history of Greece, Rome, England, France and 
Germany. Readings in the class from authorities. Construction of 
historical maps in crayon or in water color. 

American History {Third year). — Text book — Johnston's Ameri- 
can Politics. 

Construction by the student of industrial and economic maps, show- 
ing movements of populations ; the rise of political parties ; the growth 
of canals and railroads ; the acquisition of the public domain ; the 
progress of the country in business, commerce, agriculture, education ; 
the changes in State and in Federal Government during the nine- 
teenth century. 

The course of instruction also includes the study of Civil Govern- 
ment in America ; the origin of our State and of our National Govern- 
ment; the functions of the State; the executive, the judiciary, the 
legislative; municipal government, with special reference to Phila- 
delphia ; the citizen ; immigration ; land laws ; duties of public offi- 
cers ; citizenship, its duties and responsibilities." 

A special feature of the school is the class visitation to the various 
industrial establishments, for the purpose of making a personal exam- 
ination of the various processes of manufacture. Similar visits are 
also made to the park and other localities for the purpose of geolog- 
ical investigation. The work in the department in English is supple- 
mented by compositions on various industrial topics, which likewise 
necessitate a visit to industrial establishments, for the purpose of gain 
ing specific information on the subject chosen. The pupils are gen- 
erally allowed to select their own subjects according to their taste 
and inclination. Among the topics selected have been the telephone, 
cotton-weaving, modern shipbuilding, manufacture of flint glass, 
ordnance, coal fields of Pennsylvania, papermaking, photography, 
pottery, the lumber interests, silk, mining, scales, locomotives, etc., etc. 

Within three years the school has increased from 125 to 325. In 
Jun^, 1888, some twenty-five or thirty applicants, properly qualified, 
were debarred from admission for want of room. 

Of the first class which was graduated in June, 1888, some fifteen 
are pursuing their studies in university and college, and the remain- 
der have had little difficulty in obtaining positions, principally those 
in which skill of hand and administrative ability are the essential 
requisites. 

Among. the interesting practical applications of the knowledge ob- 
tained in the school may be mentioned the fact that the apparatus 



Industrial Education Commission. 277 

needed in the physical department is made by the boys themselves. 
The electric lights, also, in the workshop, and the clever device by 
which the clock at certain hours will tap the bell for change of work, 
have also been arranged and put in by the boys themselves. Ac- 
curacy of judgment as well as deftness of hand are thus developed. 

The general eflfect of this kind of training upon pupils is well stated 
in the following extracts from a rep jrt of the principal : 

" As the pupils advance in their work, and realize more clearly its 
significance, the tendency to remain at school becomes more and 
more marked, notwithstanding the flattering inducements to good 
positions made by employers desirous of securing boys skilled in the 
use of tools. One evidence of this desire to finish the full course is 
seen in the fact that but one pupil has withdrawn from the senior 
class since the first of September. 

" The beneficial influence of manual work is shown in the discipline 
of the school. The restless activities of the boys, instead of finding 
expression in breaches of conduct, find a healthy outlet in every blow 
of the hammer or push of the plane. As a consequence, the disci- 
pline of the school takes care of itself without resorting to the sus- 
pension of the pupil, or to his degredation by giving him 'demerit' 
marks. 

" A high moral tone pervades the school, and throughout all its de- 
partments a spirit of hearty cooperation on the part of the pupils 
makes the labor of instruction pleasant and efi'ective. The ability to 
execute with the hand what the mind plans, fosters a spirit of self- 
reliance and manliness, and goes far toward the development of 
character. 

'' Manual training relieves school life of much of the weariness and 
frequent stupor incidental to purely mental efi'ort, the alternation of 
hand with mind work making them mutually restful, beneficial and 
harmonious, thus reacting favorably on the purely literary work, in- 
stead of antagonizing it ; it equips the pupil with a clearer and truer 
insight into the meaning of life ; fosters habits of industry, accuracy 
and physical activity ; dignifies and elevates labor ; develops the cre- 
ative faculty, and begets a feeling of confidence and independence 
based upon the conscious possession of useful practical knowledge." 

After a public exhibition of work done in the school a leading news- 
paper bore the following testimony : 

" Not less admirable than the work with tools — possibly more 
so — was the evidence of improved, methods of work in the regu- 
lar branches which this association of hand skill with head work 
has developed in this school. The very great use that was made 
of drawing, for example, was a most admirable feature. Charts and 
tables for the systematic record of all sorts of knowledge, political, 
economic, physiological, geographical, astronomical, and what not 
these were all tabulated and presented by graphic methods by means 



278 Report of the 

of charts prepared by the pupils. Nothing could be better than this , 
nothing shown here illustrates better the value as a factor in general 
education of this training of the doing power." 

The strong footing which this institution has secured in the short 
time since its establisement is shown in the following extract from the 
annual report of the president of the board, published in February, 
1889: 

" The introduction of machinery into all branches of manufacture 
has changed the whole industrial world. The apprenticeship system 
of the past generation has become obsolete, and nothing beyond tem- 
porary expedient has yet taken its place. Industrial training in con- 
nection with our public school system appears to afford the only 
practical way of solving the problem thus presented. The board of 
education in 1885, by great effort, succeeded in getting a small appro- 
priation for a manual training school by way of experiment, and in 
September of that year the manual training school was opened. This 
school is not intended to fill the place of the high school. Neither is 
it a school to teach particular trades. In June, 1888, the first class 
graduated from this school. The report of the principal of the school 
to which particular attention is invited, shows that its graduates are 
in demand in various industrial occupations. The manual training 
school is no longer an experiment, but an assured success. It has 
now 310 pupils, and the building is crowded to its full capacity. A 
number of properly qualified applicants were unable to obtain admis- 
sion last June for the want of room to accommodate them. Judging 
from the experience of these three years, and the substantial evidence 
of the good accomplished by this school, we have no doubt that in 
June next, 200 or more properly qualified applicants will be turned 
away for lack of accommodation. 

" We need now in the north-eastern section of our city another 
manual training school of the capacity of the present school, and 
conducted upon the same plan. Such a school would be filled as soon 
as it could be provided, and I am fully persuaded that district manual 
training schools to the number of five or six will be necessary within 
a few years to meet the requirements of our people." 

The course of work in wood and metal is shown on the following 
plates : 



Industrial Education Commission. 
Work in Wood Shop {first year). — Joinery. 



279 




No.]. 


Planing Exercise. 


No. 


8. 


Mitre Joint. 


No. 15. 


Dovetail Brace. 


No. 2. 


Chiseling' Exercise. 


No 


i) 


Halved Corner. 


No. 16. 


Nailing Exercises. 


No. 3. 


Chiseling Exercise. 


No. 


10. 


Secret Slip Mortise and Tenon 
Dovetail, halved across. 


No. 17. 


Secret Dovetail. 


No. 4. 


Chiseling Exercise. 


No. 


11. 


No. 18. 


Dovetail Joint. 


No. 5. 


Halved Corner. 


No. 


^9, 


Square Butt. 


No. 19. 


Dovetail J :;int. 


No. 6. 


Ledeo Joint. 


No. 


i:i. 


Mortise and Tenon. 


No. 20. 


Bevel Dovetail. 


No. 7. 


Slip ^Mortise anU Tenon. 


No. 


u. 


Dovetail Butt. 


No. 21. 


Drawer DovetaiL 



280 Report of the 

Work in Metal Shop. — Chipping^ Filing and Fitting {■first year 




Nos. 1-2. "Washers. 
No. 3. Grate, 
No. 4. Bracket. 
No. 5. Check Washer. 
No. 6. Journal Brass. 



No. 7. Wrench. 

No. 8. Door and Frame. 

No. 9. Hollow Cube with transverse cylinders. 

No. 10. Quarter turn (pipe). 

No. 11. T Joint (pipe). 



Industrial Education Commission. 281 

Work in Wood Shop second year. — Pattern- Making. 




No. 1. 


Washer. 


No. 7. 


Wrench. 


No. 2. 


Washer. 


No. 8. 


Door and Frame. 


No. 3. 


Grate. 


No. 9. 


Hollow Cube with transverse cyhndera. 


No. 4. 


Bracket. 


No. 10. 


Quarter Turn (pipe). 


No. 5. 


Check Washer. 


No. 11. 


T Joint (pipe). 


No. 6. 


Journal Brass. 







282 



Report of the 



Exercises in Tinsmithing {second year). 

Soldering (plain seam) . 2. Soldering (lock seam), 3-4. Pipe-Jointa. 5. Comer of Seamless Pan. 6. Seamless Pan. 7. Tincup. 8. Dishpan 




Exercises in Forging {second year), 



Nos. 1-2-3. Exercises in Dra^ 

ing Out. 
No. 4. Ring (butt joint). 
No. 5. Ring (scarf noint). 
No. 6. Seamless Ring. 



No. 7. Split Ring. 

No. 8. Square. 

No. 9. Split Exercise. 

No. 10. Bolt. 

No. 11. Bolt. 



No. 12. Eye Bolt and Ring. 
No. 13. Chain and Hook. 
No. 14. Hexagonal Plug. 
No. 1.5. Welding (butt). 
No. 16. Welding (scarf). 



No. 17. Welding (split). 
No. 18. Tongs. 
No. 19. Cold ChiseUcape). 
No. 20. Cold ChiseU flat). 
No. 21-22, etc. Turning Tools. 



Industrial Education Commission. 283 

6. The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia. 

The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art was incor- 
porated on the twenty-sixth day of February, 1876, for the purpose, 
as stated in its charter, of establishing " for the State of Pennsylva- 
nia, in the city of Philadelphia, a museum of art in all its branches 
and technical applications, and with a special view to the develop- 
ment of the art industries of the State ; to provide instruction in 
drawing, painting, modeling, designing, etc., through practical schools, 
special libraries, lectures and otherwise. The institution to be similar 
in its general features to the South KDnsington Museum of London." 

The purpose of the institution as thus defined is distinctly indus- 
trial. The collections at Memorial Hall, where the museum is located, 
embrace examples of art work of every description ; but as the city 
already possesses, in the Pennyslvania Academy of the Fine Arts, an 
institution devoted to the advancement of the fine arts, it was deter- 
mined by the founders to make the collections of the Pennsylvania 
Museum as largely as possible illustrative of the application of art to 
industry, and the instruction in the school has constant reference to a 
similar purpose. 

The institution owes its origin to the increased interest in art and 
art education which was awakened by the Centennial Exhibition of 
1876. 

Pending the incorporation of the institution, a fund of $50,000 was 
subscribed, with which to make purchases at the exhibition. In the 
selection of objects the trustees had the benefit of the advice of the 
foreign commissioners to the exhibition, and in several instances the 
institution was the recipient of valuable gifts from individual exhib- 
itors. Around the nucleus thus formed the museum has grown by pur- 
chase, gift and bequest to its present proportions, numbering in its 
collections upwards of ten thousand objects. 

The major part of the collection of the products and manufactures 
of British India, which was shown at the Centennial Exhibition, was 
presented to the museum by the British government at the close of that 
exhibition. It occupies the whole of the west corridor at Memorial 
Hall. 

The Moore memorial collection of objects of art, presented to the 
museum by Mrs. Bloomfield H. Moore as a memorial of her late hus- 
band, occupies the entire east corridor. It contains exquisite exam- 
ples of lace, embroidery, fans, jewelry, pottery and porcelain, metal 
work, enamels, carved work in ivory and in wood, tapestries and pic- 
tures. 

The museum also possesses several smaller collections, suflSciently 
complete in ^themselves to be regarded as fairly representative of the 
departments to which they belong. Of these, the Casper Clark collec 
tion of Persian metal work, pottery and textiles ; the Yaux collection 



284 Keport of the 

of ancient pottery, and the Castellani collection of textiles are, per- 
haps, the most important. 

In addition to its actual possessions, the museum is constantly re- 
ceiving accessions in the form of loans of a more or less permanent 
character, by which the element of freshness is secured, and popular 
interest in the collections continually renewed. 

The purpose of the school is to furnish instruction in drawing, paint- 
ing, modeling, carving and designing as is required by designers, 
superintendents and workmen in the various constructive and deco- 
rative arts, and to serve as a training school for teachers of these 
branches. 

It was opened during the winter of 1877-'78 in temporary rooms in 
industrial art hall. 

The classes were very small for several years, but the attendance 
has increased rapidly since 1884. 

Up to 1884 the work of the classes was confined to the general 
courses in drawing, painting and modeling, with constant regard to 
the needs of the industries, it is true, but without attempting to pro- 
vide instruction in any of the occupations themselves, which it was 
hoped would be directly benefited by the training which the students 
received here. 

The need of providing facilities for such technical instruction, how- 
ever, became apparent very early in the history of the school, as it 
was seen that only by this means could the proper direction be given 
to such purely artistic training as the school had to offer, by familiar- 
izing the students with the processes by which any industrial applica- 
tion of design would have to be made. 

The committee desires to call especial attention to the work accom- 
plished by the 

Department op Weaving and Textile Design. 

The Philadelphia Association of Textile Manufacturers was formed 
in 1882, and among the objects for which it was specially created was 
the fostering of technical education. Its members represented the 
progressive element of the manulacturing community of Philadelphia 
and vicinity. These gentlemen were fully aware of the progress of 
technical schools for the textile arts in Germany, France and Eng- 
land, and were persuaded that the United States could not hope to 
maintain the best market for her products unless those products com- 
bined the highest skill in manufacture and the best taste in design- 
At that time no thorough school existed in this country, and it was 
necessary to begin at the foundation of the work, without previous 
knowledge of the exact methods to be adopted or the means to be 
employed to reach the desired end. 

It was apparent that considerable money must be raised to properly 



Industrial Education Commission. 285 

lay the foundation for a successful school. The sum of $50,000 was 
fixed upon as the minimum amount with which to inaugurate the 
work, and the association endeavored to obtain this sum from the 
manufacturers of Philadelphia by subscription ; but, as with every 
public-spirited enterprise, a few leading men and firms bore the bur- 
den of the work, and the subscriptions finally closed at $35,000, all of 
which was subscribed with the understanding that no call should be 
made unless the entire $50,000 was secured. This sum was never 
reached and the whole enterprise seemed likely to be abandoned. 

At this juncture a few of the individuals who had been actively en- 
gaged in the efi'ort to raise the $50,000, despairing of success in that 
direction, concluded to assume the responsibility of attempting the 
work without the aid of any subscriptions. The project was made 
known to the trustees of the Pennsylvania Museum and School of In- 
dustrial Art, who very kindly placed rooms in their school building 
at their disposal without charge. Teachers were engaged, two Jac- 
quard looms were ordered and a night class of enthusiastic students 
organized in 1883. The outfit was necessarily limited, but was 
increased without delay, as experience showed the needs to be sup- 
plied. Only men of acknowledged skill were engaged as teachers, a 
fact which greatly assisted the projectors of the enterprise and won 
for the school the confidence of the community. 

At a meeting of the Philadelphia Textile Association held at this 
time the subject was again discussed, and the association decided that 
it would be wise to sustain the enterprise, and recommended the sub- 
scribers to the $50,000 fund to turn over the amount of their subscrip- 
tion to its use. Nearly $30,000 out of the original $35,000 was trans- 
ferred in this way, twenty-five per cent, of which was authorized to 
be paid in for the use of the school in cash. 

The following season President William Piatt Pepper, of the Penn- 
sylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, undertook to raise 
funds for the erection of a building for the use of the school. He suc- 
ceeed, within a very few days, in securing the amount needed ; the 
building was completed in time for the new school year. The 
leading manufacturers of machinery responded very generously 
to an appeal to supply the institution with the very best machinery ; 
and the evening class of 1884-85 was progressive and enthusiastic, 
acknowledging the great benefit they derived from the connection 
with the school. 

In September, 1885, the instructors were regularly engaged to give 
their whole time to the school, and a day class was organized to specially 
prepare young men for the higher departments of their work, by means 
of a regular course of instruction, extending over a period of three years. 
The season of 1885-86 was prosperous and proved conclusively that 
such a school must not only be a great addition to a manufacturing 
community like Philadelphia, but an element of strength to the whole 



Report of the 

country. Friends of the enterprise visited the best schools of Europe 
in the interest of this institution, and whenever methods were found 
superior to our own, they were unhesitatingly put into practice, until 
to-day the management feel that they are entirely ready to supply 
the want that has so long been pressing on the country. 

It is no longer incumbent upon anyone to visit Europe for technical 
instruction in textile art, as this school is fully prepared to supply 
technical information on all subjects connected therewith : Designing, 
weaving, dyeing, finishing, cleansing of raw materials, all being pro- 
vided for, as shown by the curriculum. 

Tho school is located in the building 1336 Spring Garden street, 
which has been purchased by the trustees with funds provided for this 
purpose by the associate committee of women and adapted to the 
needs of the classes in the most thorough manner. 

The work of each department or class is carried on in a room by 
itself, so that the annoyances and interruptions inseparable from the 
assembling of large classes and different grades of work in a common 
room are avoided. 

The building contains a lecture room ; a library and reading room ; 
a room for elementary work from casts and models ; a gallery for 
advanced work from the cast ; one for the life class ; a room for the 
grinding and preparation of colors; one for the work in applied design; 
one for modeling; one for wood carving; and a suite of rooms for the 
class in weaving and textile design. The chemical laboratory and dye 
houses are located in another building close by. 

The school is under the immediate supervision and receives the 
active support of the associate committee of women, who act conjointly 
with the board of trustees in managing the afi'airsof the Pennsylvania 
Museum and School of Industrial Art. This committee now numbers 
thirty women. 

The committee was organized in 1883 and it has (besides greatly 
increasing the list of members, by whose subscriptions the institution 
is largely supported) paid over since that time to the trustees $27,400 
for carrying on the work of the school and advancing the interests of 
the whole institution. 

Requirements for Admission. 

Applicants for admission are expected to be as proficient in the 
common English branches as the completion of the grammar school 
course would imply. All applicants must also pass an examination 
in free-hand drawing. Students in the textile and chemical depart- 
ments must also pass an examination in arithmetic (through per- 
centage). 

The fee for the day class in any department of the general course is 
$40 a year. Students entering for less than a year pay at the rate of 
$8 a month. 



Industrial Education Commission. 287 

The fee for the evening class is $10 a year, or $5 for each term of 
three months. 

The fee for the teachers' class is the same as that for the evening 
class. 

In the special courses as follows : 

Weaving and textile design, day class, $100 a year ; evening class, 
$15 a year. Chemistry and dyeing, day class, $100; evening class, 
$15 a year. Pupils in the chemical department — day class — are re- 
quired to make a deposit of $10, to cover breakage, which must be 
settled for semi-annually. Wood carving, $50 a year, or $10 a month. 

Instruments and materials for study must be provided by the stu- 
dents. All articles required in any class are tor sale at the school at 
less than retail prices, and students are expected to purchase them 
here. 

Graduates from the regular course may continue in the school for 
advanced study without payment of fees, on condition that they de- 
vote a certain amount of time to teaching in the school or to other art 
work for the promotion of the interests of the institution. 

The courses in the different departments are as follows : 

General Course. 

The general course of study embraces drawing and painting in water 
colors from models, casts, draperies and still life ; lettering ; plane 
and descriptive geometry ; projections, with their application to 
machine drawing and to cabinet work and carpentry ; shadows, per- 
spective, modeling and casting; practice in the use ot color, with 
special reference to the needs of designers — especially in textiles ; 
historical ornament, study from the living model and original design. 
The instrumental drawing is taught by means of class lessons or lec- 
tures, and lectures are also given on anatomy and historical ornament, 
upon which examinations for certificates are based. 

Industrial Drawing. 
Class A. 

Exercises. 
Free-hand Drawing. 

(1) Drawing of ornament from casts in charcoal, pen-and-ink and crayon. 

(2) Model drawing in charcoal, pen-and-ink and crayon. 

(3) Drawing of pieces of furniture, chairs, tables, etc. 

(4) Studies of drapery in crayon, pen-and-ink, wash, etc. 

(5) Studies of objects of industrial art from the museum. 

(6) Studies of flowers and foliage from nature, in charcoal, pen-and-ink and water 

color. 

(7) Lettering. 

(8) Analysis of plants for the purpose of design. 

(9) Original designs, from natural forms. 
(10) Studies in historic ornament. 

(11^ Design applied to surface decoration, flat or in relief. 



288 Keport of the 

Instrumental Drawing. 

(12) Exercises wit?h instruments (construction of plane figures, line shading, etc.). 

(13) Plans and elevations of buildings and machinery. 

(14) Descriptive geometry (intersections and developments). 

(15) Perspective. 

Examinations. 

(1) Plane geometrical drawing. 

(2) Projections. 

(3) Descriptive geometry. 

(4) Perspective. 
(5") Model drawing. 

(6) Drawing from memory. 

(7) Historical ornament, a written paper, illustrated by drawings. 

(This class attends lectures once a week on geometry in all its applications to 
drawing ; and once a week on perspective, on the principles of design, on historical 
ornament, or some other subject directly related to the worK of the class-room.) 

Advanced Drawing Class. 
Class B. 

This class is for the thorough study of the figure from the cast and 
from the living model. Students are admitted to this class only after 
completing the work of the preceding class A, or, in the case of those 
who do not desire to complete the course, or who have received their 
preliminary training in other institutions, on passing a satisfactory 
examination in drawing the human figure, either from life or from 
the cast. 

The life class works from the draped model, and each pose is ar- 
ranged with as much reference to the study, either of historical cos- 
tume or of beauty of decorative efi'ect, as of the figure itself. 

This class is under the personal instruction of the principal. 

Decorative Painting and Applied Design. 

Glass C. 

Exercises. 

(1) Enlargement and reduction of colored ornament, from plates and from actual 

fabrics, carpets, wall papers, etc. 

(2) Exercises with instruments. Drawing of geometrical patterns from plates and 

fabrics. ( For students who have not taken the certificate of Class A. ) 

(3) Grinding and preparation of colors. 

(4) Studies in color harmony, consisting of original designs treated in different 

schemes of color. 

(5) Studies of plants and flowers from nature. 

(6) Studies of groups, draperies, etc. 
\1) Studies of objects from the museum. 

(8) Original designs for painted, printed and woven ornament, lace, embroidery, etc. 

Examinations. 
(i) Time sketch in water colors of flowers or a group of objects. 

(2) Exercises in color harmony, in water colors. 

(3) Paper on the origin and chemistry of pigments. 

(4) Paper on principles of design in surface decoration. 



Industrial Education Commission. 289 

(5) Description of litliography, engraving and etching, porcelain and pottery dec- 
oration, fresco painting, mosaic work, inlays, colored glass work. 
(This class attends the lectures on harmony of color, on historical ornament and 
on principles of decorative design.) 

Modeling Class. 
Class D. 

Exercises. 
In Clay. 

(1) Studies of ornament from casts. 

(2) Studies of details of human figure from casts. 

(3) Siudies of animal from casts. 

(4) Studies of ornament from prints and photographs. 

(5) Studies of the living model. 

(6) Original designs for wood or stone carving, and for stucco work. 

(7) Original designs for ornament in terra cotta. 

Teachers' Class. 

{For those employed as teachers in either public or private schools.) 

Exercises. 

Free-hand Work. 

(1) Drawing of ornament from the cast. 

(2) Drawing from models. 

(3) Drawing pieces of furniture, as chairs, tables, etc. 

(4) Foliage from nature. 

(5) Analysis of plants for the purpose of design. 

(6) Elementary design. 

(7) Studies of historic ornament. 

(8) Applied design. 

(9) Drawing from dictation. 

(10) Modeling, with special reference to the work of the kindergarten 



Tnsfrumental Work. 



(11) Plane geometrical drawing. 

(12) Elements of projection. 

(13) Elements of perspective. 



Examinations. 

(1) Model drawing. 

(2) Drawing from dictation. 

(3) Plane geometrical drawing. 

(4) Elements of projection. 

(5) Elements of perspective. 

(6) Drawing on the blackboard. 

Teachers' Cl/ss. 

(For those employed as teachers in either public or private schools 

Exercises. 
Free-hand Work. 

(1) Drawing of ornament from the cast. 

(2) Drawing from models. 

(3) Drawing pieces of furniture, as chairs, tables, etc. 

19 Ed. Com. 



290 Report of the 

(4) Foliage from nature. 

(5) Analysis of plants for the purpose of design. 

(6) Elementary design. 

(7) Studies of historic ornament. 

(8) Applied design. 

(9) Drawing from dictation. 

(10) Modeling, with special reference to the work of the kindergarten. 

Instrumental Work. 

(11) Plane geometrical drawing. 

(12) Elements of projection. 

(13) Elements of perspective. 

Examinations. 

(1) Model drawing. 

(2) Drawing from dictation. 

(3) Plane geometrical drawing. 

(4) Elements of projection. 

(5) Elements of perspective. 

(6) Drawing on the blackboard. 

This course is arranged for the benefit of those who, while unable 
to devote as much time to the work of this school as would be re- 
quired to complete the regular course covered by the certificate, are 
yet desirous of properly qualifying themselves either to teach draw- 
ing in any elementary school or to make a good use of the blackboard 
in teaching other branches. 

Especial attention is paid to this last consideration, and classes in 
blackboard work, under the personal instruction of the priucipal, 
meet every Tuesday afternoon for just such practice as is particularly 
desired by kindergarteners and primary school teachers. 

Department of Weaving and Textile Design. 

COURSE OF study. 

Day Class — Requiring a three years'^ attendance at school. 
FiKST Year's Coukse. 

A general study of nature of materials used in weaving textile fabrics, explana- 
tion of the necessary materials and instruments used by designers. 

Drawing-in of harness — Straight draws ; broken draws ; point draws ; section 
draws ; straight double draws ; mixed or irregular draws. 

Reeds and reed calculations. 

Dressing of warps, and calculations for same ; beaming. 

WEAVES. 

A. — Ground or Foundation Weaves. 

I. The hand loom analyzed and explained. 

II. Plain or cotton weave and fancy figuring through color arrangements in warp 
and tilling, for light weight fabrics. 

III. Twill weaves— rt, one-sided twills ; h, even-sided twills; and fancy figuring 
with same through color arrangements in warp and filling. 

IV. Satiu weaves — a, single satins ; b, double satins ; c, figuring in single satins. 



Industrial Education Co:m^iission. 291 

B. — Drafting Weaves. 
Lectures on same, with practical examples and rules to be observed. 

C. — D3rivative Weaves. 

Basket weaves ; rib weaves ; granite weaves ; steep twills ; curved twills ; Brocken 
twills; skip twills; corkscrew twills ; fancy twills ; pointed twills and honeycomb 
weaves ; pique weaves and combinations of miscellaneous weaves through combin- 
tion for single fabrics, two or more classes from the above. 

Standard sLz34 of cDtton, wool and worsted yarns, and calculations with the 
same. 

Picking out samples of fabrics constructed on single weaves, and methods and 
rules for calculating used in duplication. 

Original w^eaves and complete orders for manufacturing the same, composed by 
each scholar. 

Instrumental Drawing. 
Exercises with instruments ; construction of plane figures ; line shading, etc. 

Free-hand Drawing. 

Enlargement and reduction of designs ; analysis of plants for the purpose of using 
design for textile fabrics ; work in color; lectures on color harmony. 

Second Year's Course. 

Power looms analyzed and explained. 

Practical weaving and fixing ; a, the Thos. Wood roller loom for ginghams, shirt- 
ings, cottonades, dress goods, etc. ; 6, the Crompton loom, and c, the Knowles loom 
for worsted and woolen fabrics of everj'- description ; single and double beam work. 

Double cloths — Study of the best methods of combining different weaves, as : 
Designs backed with weft ; designs backed with warp ; designs backed with warp 
and weft ; designs for double cloth^double faced. 

Calculations : ascertaining the cost of production, etc., of different fabrics. 

Analyses of single (fancy) and double cloth fabrics, and reproduction with various 
changes, as indicated by instructor. 

The Jacquard machine analyzed and explained; principles of construction and 
method of operatien of the single-lift machine; the various modifications, such as 
double-lift single cylinder, double-lift double cylinder ; laying out of comber boards, 
and figuring for various changes in texture ; tying up of harness for single cloth. 

The Bridesburg clipper loom analyzed and explained, and practical work with it, 
with special reference to its use in connection with the double-lift double cylinder 
Jacquard machine for damask table covers, etc. 

Card stamping machine (French index) analyzed and explained. 

Practical work for single cloth. 

Card lacing explained and practiced. 

Designing paper with reference to the different kinds of textile fabrics. 

Sketching of designs and transferring from sketch to designing paper. 

Methods of tying up Jacquard harness. 

Changing of textures on Jacquard looms. 

Shading of w^eaves in different Jacquard w^ork. 

Analysis of Jacquard work by picking out of textures and by sketching the de- 
sign. 

Special study of Jacquard W'Ork for the following textile fabrics: Damask towel, 
table cloth, dress goods, two-ply ingrain carpet, three-ply ingrain carpet, upholstery, 
carriage covers, cloak ings, dress trimming, fringes, Marseilles quilts, etc. 

Study of processes for textile fabrics before and after weaving. 



292 Report of the 

Instrumental Draiving. 

Plans for machinery, mill buildings, etc. 

Illustrating processes of weaving. 

Illustrating sectional cuts of textile fabrics, etc. , 

Free-hand Drawing. 

Sketching for the different fabrics on Jacquard work. 

{^For work in tjhemistry required in this class, seepage 4£.) 

Thikd Year's Course. 

The two-ply ingrain carpet machine analyzed and explained. 

The ingrain carpet hand loom and the Murkland power carpet loom analyzed and 
explained. 

Practical work with these looms. 

Card stamping machines (American index) analyzed and explained. 

Practical work with these machines. 

Tying up of Jacquard harness (French index) machines for double cloth — three 
and four-ply fabrics. 

Advanced Work for Harness Loom. 

Study of cut pile fabrics — velvets, plush, etc. 

Study of Terry pile fabrics — a, with wires ; 6, without wires. 

Study of tapestry and Brussels carpets ; double-faced Brussels carpet ; Terry and 
velvet combined in Brussels carpets. 

Astrakans — a, cut ; 6, uncut ; c, figuring in Terry and velvet principle. 

Chenille — Rugs, curtains, etc. 

Gauze fabrics— a, plain ; 6, figured ; c, combined with other fabrics. 

Instrumental and free-hand drawing similar to second year's course, but more ad- 
vanced. 

Department op Chemistry and Dyeing. 

Schedule of Studies. 
First Year. 



First Term. 



General chemistry lectures. 
General chemistry laboratory work. 



Second Term. 

General chemistry lectures. 
Qualitative analysis lectures. 
Qualitative anal3'sis laboratory work. 
Special methods. 

Second Year. 
First Term. 

Volumetric analysis lectures and laboratory work. 

Gravimetric analysis. 

Industrial chemistry lectures and laboratory work. 

Scouring. 

Bleaching. 

Dyeing, etc. 



Industrial Education Commission. 293 

Second Term. 

Industrial cbemistry lectures and laboratory work. 

Dyes. 

Mordants. 

Fast colore 

Dyeing. 

Finishing, etc. 

Course in Chemistry and Dyeing. 

This department was organized in the fall of 1887 and owing to an 
insufficiency of room in the school building accommodations were ob- 
tained at the south-east corner of Broad and Spring Garden streets, a 
few doors from the main building. A large laboratory has been fitted 
up with accommodations for some thirty (30) students, and is well 
supplied with the apparatus, chemicals and dyestuffs necessary for 
r-arrying on experimental work in chemistry, and ia dyeing and fin- 
ishing different fabrics. There is also a small dye house in which the 
yarn used by the weaving department is cleansed, bleached and dyed, 
and in this way the students obtain a practical knowlerJge of the art 
of dying. The department is primarily designed to give the student 
that practical knowledge of the subject which will enable him to avoid 
the errors so often made by those who have no such knowledge, and 
also to so train his powers of observation that he will be enabled to 
detect and overcome faults in the various methods, used in the textile 
industries. 

With this object in view the regular day students commence the 
study of general chemistry in the second year. Lectures and oral 
exercises are given in the class-room, and these are supplemented by 
work in the laboratory. Each student is supplied with a desk and the 
apparatus necessary for carrying on a sufficient number of experiments 
to demonstrate clearly the general principles of chemistry, with 
especial reference to its practical application to the textile industries. 
The student is encouraged to make original research of the various 
methods used in chemical and manufacturing work with the object of 
improving them if possible ; and as this is done under the eye of an 
instructor, who is careful to correct any wrong conclusions, the stu 
dent is so trained in his faculty of observation that when future diffi- 
culties arise he will be able to overcome them. 

In the second term the study of chemistry is continued by means of 
lectures, and in the laboratory the student commences the work of 
qualitative analysis, which is continued through the term. 

Lectures are also given on this subject and especial attention is paid 
to the analysis of those chemicals and dyestuff's most commonly used. 
Also to the methods of detecting the dyes present on fibers and the 
mordants used. The laboratory instruction is supplemented as far as 
possible by excursions to manufacturing and chemical establishments 
where the processes conducted on a large scale can be seen in practi- 
cal operation. 



294 Keport of the 

In the second year a brief course in quantitative analysis is taken 
up and various methods of both volumetric and gravimetric analysis 
are taught. This includes the methods used for testing acids, alkalies, 
various chemicals, dyestufFs and mordants, such as sumac, indigo, tar- 
tar emetic, etc. 

The study of industrial chemistry is then taken up and carried on 
for the remainder of the year. Lectures are given on the methods of 
manufacturing various chemicals and dyes. The different materials 
used in textile industries, as cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax, etc., are con- 
sidered and the differences between them and their behavior toward 
chemicals and dyestuffs carefully explained. Having studied the raw 
materials, the different processes to convert them into finished cloth 
are taken up systematically and the faults met within each explained. 

Taking for example the wool fiber, its source is first considered and 
then the variations occurring in it, due, to differences in climate, breed 
of sheep and portion of the body from which the fiber is taken. 

The method of scouring and the processes of carding and spinning, 
etc., are thoroughly studied. 

The various conditions in which wool is dyed, as in the raw state, 
or in the form of yarn, or as woven into cloth, are next taken up and 
the methods used in each given. 

And finally the methods of finishing the woven cloth are considered. 

Laboratory Work. 

Particular attention is paid to the work of the students in the labo- 
ratory in connection with the lectures, and each student is obliged to 
carry on experimental work in the methods used for determining the 
various materials employed, whether cotton, wool, silk, etc , and 
especially to detect them when mixed together in cloth or yarn. He 
then takes up each material and carries on the processes of cleansing, 
bleaching and dyeing. 

The action of the different mordants on the various dyes is con- 
sidered and their effect on the shade as well as on the fastness of the 
color determined. A great deal of attention is paid to the methods 
of dyeing fast shades, and the process of testing dyed fabrics as to the 
fastness of their colors toward light and scouring is carried out. 

Besides the experimental work in the small way there is also a dye- 
house connected with the laboratory in which the students dye the 
yarn used in the weaving department, and in this way a practical, 
knowledge is obtained of the subject. During the past year the stu- 
dents have taken yarn in the grease and carried out the entire process 
of scouring, dyeing and weaving it into cloth original in color and 
design so that the entire work from the yarn in the grease to the 
woven cloth is now carried on at the school. 



Industrial Education Commission. 295 

Carving Class. 

Course of Study. 

(1) Selection, sharpening and care of tools. 

(2) Bosses and scrolls from c^sts and models. 

(3) Intaglios and mold sinking. 

(4) Ornament from prints and drawings. 

(5) Original designs for panels, carved enrichments for furniture 
and cabinet work, picture frames, easels, etc. 

Lectures, 

Lectures on the anatomy of the human and of the animal form as 
applied to decorative art, on harmony of color and related subjects 
are given throughout the year. 

Class instruction in the geometrical branches is given qyqyj Mon- 
day, which all students are expected to attend ; and lectures on orig- 
inal design, on art history and on perspective are given by the prin- 
cipal every Wednesday morning from eleven o'clock to half-past 
twelve, and every Thursday evening. All first-year students are ex- 
pected to attend these lectures. 

Evening Classes. 

These are held on Monday and Wednesday evenings from 7.30 to 
9.30 o'clock, from October 9th until the middle of April. 

The course consists essentially of the same topics as are taken up by 
the day classes. A full course of lectures is given on chemistry, and 
laboratory work is devoted almost entirely to experimental work in 
cleansing, bleaching and dyeing different fabrics. The full course 
covers two years and is divided as folio w^s : 

FIRST YEAR. 

The general principles of chemistry are introduced by a series of 
lectures and experiments. At the same time work is commenced in 
the laboratory and some chemical experiments carried on by each 
student. The study of the different fibres follows and the methods of 
detection in mixed goods; the best mode of cleansing, bleaching and 
dyeing are given, and then the methods of finishing the woven cloth 
in order to obtain the best results. 

In connection with lectures on these subjects, the student carries 
out experiments in the laboratory on Small samples and new dyestuffs, 
or methods are tested and their utility or uselessness shown. 

SECOND YEAR. 

In the second year the study of qualitative and also quantitative 
analysis, including both volumetric and gravimetric analysis, is briefly 
considered, and the methods of testing acids, alkalies and various 
chemicals in ccmmon use in the dye house are given. The study of 



296 Report of the 

dyeing and finishing is continued with especial reference to fast 
colors and such shades as give the most trouble in the dye-house. 
New dyes and processes are tested, and opportunity and assistance is 
given any student desirous of making special research of subjects 
directly appertaining to his line of bu^ness. 

Other Special Courses. 

Special courses in wood carving, tapestry painting and other 
branches can usually be arranged to suit the convenience of the pupil, 
the fees being the same as tiie monthly fees for the regular course. 



6. Lehigh University. 

The Lehigh University at Bethlehem, Pa., was founded by the Hon. 
Asa Packer, who, during the year 1865, appropriatnd the sum of five 
hundred thousand dollars, to which he added one hundred and fifteen 
acres of land in South Bethlehem to establish an educational institu- 
tion in the valley of the Lehigh. It was incorporated by the Legis- 
lature of Pennsylvania in 1886. In addition to these gifts made during 
his lifetime, Judge Packer by his last will secured to the university 
an endowment of $l,500,00i). 

'^The original object of Judge Packer was to afford the young men 
of the Lehigh Valley a complete technical education for those pro- 
fessions which had developed the peculiar resources of the surround- 
ing region. Instruction was to be liberally provided in civil, me- 
chanical and mining engineering, chemistry, metallurgy, and in all 
needful collateral studies. French and German were made important 
elements in the collegiate course. A school of general literature 
was part of the original plan, together with tuition in the ancient 
classics." 

Admission. 

All candidates for admission must be at least sixteen years of age 
and must satisfactorily pass examination in the following subjects : 

English grammar; geography, general and political; history of the 
United States, including the Constitution; arithmetic; algebra (01- 
ney's university algebra is recommended, as it is the text-book used 
in the university); geometry (Chauvenet's geometry, six books). 

Elementary physics is required in addition to the above for admis- 
sion to the course in mechanical engineering. 

Candidates for admission to advanced studies in any coicrse are 
required to pass, in addition to the entrance examinations for that 
course^ examinations in the work already done by the classes which 
they desire to enter. 

Tuition is free in all branches and classes. 



Industrial Education Commission. 297 

Courses op Study. 

Two schools are included in the university, viz : The school of 
general literature which comprises, 

I. The classical course or course in arts. 
II. The Latin scientific course or course in philosophy. 

III. The course in science and letters, 
and the school of technology which comprises, 
I. The course in civil engineering. 
II. The course in mechanical engineering. 

III. The course in mining and metallurgy. 

lY. The course in electrical engineering. 
Y. The course in chemistry. 

" The object of the course in mechanical engineering is the study of 
the science of mechanics ; the principal subjects are : the nature, 
equivalerfce and analysis of mechanisms, the mechanics or theory of 
the principal classes or types of machinery, mechanical technology and 
the principles and practice of machine design. 

" That the students may obtain the practical engineering data which 
they will most need when beginning their work as mechanical engi- 
neers, they are required to pursue a course of shop instruction which 
does not necessarily involve manual labor and manipulation of tools, 
but is principally devoted to familiarizing them with those points in 
patternmaking, molding, forging, fitting and finishing, .which they 
need to know as designers of machinery. Particular attention is 
therefore directed to the forms and sizes of machine parts that can be 
readily constructed in the various workshops, to the time that it takes 
to perform, and the order of the various operations to the dimensions 
most needed by workmen and to the various devices for increasing 
the accuracy of the work, durability of the parts and convenience of 
manipulation. This involves acquaintance with the processes and 
machinery of the workshop, but it is the foreman's and superinten- 
dent's knowledge which is required, rather than the manual dexterity 
and skill of the workman and tool hand. The acquirements peculiar 
to the latter are by no means despised, and the students are encouraged 
to familiarize themselves therewith during leisure hours, but manual 
work in the shops forms no regular part of the course. On the con- 
trary, the student enters the shop with hands and mind free to exam- 
ine all the processes, operations and machinery, and is ready at the 
call of the teacher to witness any operation of special interest. 
Provided with note book, pencil, calipers and measuring rule, the 
student sketches the important parts of the various machine tools, 
notes down the successive steps of each of th*^ important shop pro- 
cesses as illustrated by the pieces operated upon, and follows 
pieces of work thjough the shops from the pig or merchant form to 
the finished machine. 



298 Report of tee 

That the students may learn to observe carefully, and be trained to 
think and observe for themselves in these matters, there is required 
of them a full description of the various processes, operations and tools 
involved in the production of each one of a series of properly graded 
examples of patterns, castin^2;s, forgings and finished pieces which are 
not being constructed in the shops at the time and the blue prints for 
which have been given to them on entering the shops. The student's 
work is directed not only by these drawings and by the printed pro 
gramme given him at the start, but also personally by a teacher, who 
accompanies him into the shops, gives necessary explanations, and 
tests the strength and accuracy of his knowledge bv examining the 
sketches and notes and by frequent questioning. Finally the results 
of the observations and the sketches are embodied in a memior, 

"During the course there are frequent visits of inspection to engi- 
neering works, both in and out of town, with special reference to such 
subjects as machine elements, prime movers, machinery fdr lifting, 
handling and transporting, and machinery for changing the form and 
size of materials. It is intended that each of these excursions shall 
have some definite purpose in view, which must be fully reported 
upon by the students. 

'' The instruction in machine design, during the second term of the 
junior year, consists in determining rational and empirical formulas 
tor proportioning such machine parts as come under the head of fas- 
tenings, bearings, rotating, sliding and twisting pieces, belt and toothed 
gearing, levers and connecting rods; also in comparing recent and ap- 
proved forms of the same parts with respect to their advantages as 
regards fitness, ease of construction and durability, and in making full- 
sized working drawings of these parts. All the dimensions are deter- 
mined by the students frc^m the above mentioned formulas, the data 
being given as nearly as possible as they would arise in practice. Dur- 
ing the senior year the students undertake the calculations, estimates 
and working drawings involved in the design of a simple but complete 
machine, each student being engaged upon a difi'erent machine. From 
the finished drawings of each machine tracings are made and then blue 
prints taken for distribution among the other members of the class. 
The whole class also take up the design of a steam engine, every di- 
mension being determined by the students, and complete working 
drawings made. In the case of the simple machines and of the steam 
engine the general plan of arrangement is given to the students in the 
form of rough sketches, photographs or wood cuts. This work con- 
tinues to the middle of the last term of the senior year. From this 
time on the students are expected to make original designs for simple 
mechanisms, whose object has been fully explained. Throughout the 
course the work in the draughting room is carried on as nearly as pos- 
sible like that of an engineering establishment, and special attention 



Industrial Education Commission. 299 

is paid to methods of expediting the work of calculation by means of 
simple formulas, tables and diagrams. 

The graduate in this course receives the degree of Mechanical En- 
gineer (M. E.)- 

The course, in detail, is as follows : 

Fkeshman Class. 

{Figures indicate hours per week.) 

Second Term. 

Mathematics.— Olney^ university algebra, part Til (3). Plane and spherical 

trigonometry and mensuration ; use of logarithmic tables (2). 
German.— Grammav and exercises (continued) ; Joynes' Otto's reader ; transla- 
tions (3). Or French. — Grammar; Keetle's reader ; translations (3) 
Drawing. — Projection drawing and descriptive geometry (3). Free-hand draw- 
ing (2). 
English. — Exercises and declamations (2). 
Gymnasium (2). 

Sophomore Class. 

First Term. 

Mathematics. — Analytical geometry ; Olney's general geometry (4). 
Physics. — Mechanics, heat and electricity; lectures (5). 
Drawing. — Isometrical drawing; architectural drawing (2). 
Visits of Inspection. — Shops of the vicinity (2). 

German. — Grammar; exercises; translations; readings (2). Or French — Gram- 
mar ; Chardenal's exercises ; readings ; translations (2). 
JE'w^Zis/i.— Exercises and declamations (1). 
Gymnasium (2), 

Second Term. 

Mathematics.— Diflereniisl and integral calculus, Olney (4). 
Physics. — Sound, light and meteorology ; lectures (3). 

German. — Grammar; exercises; systematic readings ; translations; dictation (2). 
Or French. — Grammar; dictation; Chardenal's exercises ; O'Connor, 
Choix de Contes Contemporains (2). 
Mechayiics. — Mathematical theory of motion ; science of motion in general ; statics ; 
dynamics and statics of fluids ; lectures on theory of center of grav- 
ity and moment of inertia (4). 
Steam Engine. — Rigg's practical treatise (3). 
Essays and Declamations (1). 
Gymnasium (2). 

Junior Class. 

First Term. 

Mathematics. — Integral calculus, Courtenay (2). 

6?e7'maw.— Systematic readings; translation; dictation; compositions (2). Or 
French. — Translations; readings; contemporary authors ; Saintsbury. 
Specimens of French literature (2). Conversation class in both lan- 
guages optional. 
Mechanical Technology. — Shop instruction ; examination of the processes and ap- 
pliances involved in patternmaking, molding, forging, 
fitting and finishing, with sketches and reports (7). 
Boilers. — Wilson ; strength, construction and wear and tear of boilers (1). 
Strength of Materials. — Elastici' y and strength of wood, stone and metals ; theory 
oi' l;cams, shafts and columns ; reports on experi- 
mental tests (4). 
Literature and History (1). 
Gymnasium (2). 



300 Report of thk 

Second Term. 

German. — S^'stematic readings ; compositions ; lectures on German literature (2). 

Or French. — Reading ; dictation ; compositions ; lectures on French 

literature ; conversation class in both languages optional (2). 

Kinematics of Machinery. — Reuleaux ; nature and equivalence ol mechanism (3)' 

Machine Design. — Proportioning of such machine parts as come under the head of 

fastenings, bearings, rotating and sliding pieces, belt and 

toothed gearing, levers and connecting rods (5). 

Metallurgy. — Metallurgical processes ; furnaces ; refractory building materials ; 

combustion ; natural and artificial fuels; metallurgy of iron (4). 
Machinery of Transmission. — Weis bach-Herrmann (2). 
Essays and Original Orations. 
Gymnasium (2). 

Senior Class. 

First Term. 

Thermodynamics. — General principles ; application to steam engines and air com- 
pressors (3). 
Gr a.phicaJ Statics. — Graphical anal^'^sis of roof trusses and girders (2). 
Machine Design. — Calculations and working-drawings for a hijh-speed steam en- 
gine (4). 
Kinematics. — Diagrams of the changes of position, speed and acceleration in 
mechanisms ; link and valve motions ; quick return motions ; 
parallel motions ; laying out cams (3). 
Mechanics of Machiuery. — Weisbach-Herrmann ; hoisting machinery, accumu- 
lators, cranes and locomotives (4). 
Gyw,nasium. 

Second Term. 

Mechanics of Machinery. — Weisbach-Herrmann ; pumps, pumping engines, 

blowing engines, compressors and tans (4). 
Machine Design. — Calculations and working-drawings for the following machines : 
Drilling, shaping, milling, shearing and punching machines, 
hoists, pumps and stone crushers ; original designs (5). 
Hydraulics. — Hydrostatics ; flow of water in pipes and channels ; hydraulic ino- 

tors (2). 
Measurement of Power. — Indicating ol steam engines ; determination of evapora- 
tive efficiency of boilers ; dynamometer experiments 

(1). 

Lectures on American and English Literature (2). 
Christian Evidences. — Lectures (1). 
Preparation of Thesis. 
Gymnasium. 

7. The Pennsylvania State College. 

The Pennsylvania State College was opened to students in 1859, as 
an agricultural manual labor school. Subsequently it received the 
benefit of the land grant act of 1862, which gives '' the mechanic arts " 
an equal place with agriculture among its leading objects. The gen- 
eral plan of organization is to make the studies of the first two years 
substantially alike for all students, and then to provide a number of 
special and technical courses on the foundation thus laid. In this 
way the college now maintains advanced courses in General Science, 
Agriculture, Chemistry, Physics and Electrotechnics, Civil Engineer- 
ing and Mechanical Engineering, besides a more elementary course 
in Mechanic Arts. 



Industrial Education Commission. 301 

Mechanic Arts'. 

This course went into full operation in September, 188-1. A sub- 
stantial and attractive new building was opened February 10, 1886, 
and is admirably adapted to its purpose, except that the recent rapid 
increase in the number of students has already outgrown its capacity. 
The course is designed to afford such students as have had the ordi- 
nary common school education an opportunity to continue the ele- 
mentary scientific and literary studies, together with mechanical and 
free hand drawing, while receiving theoretical and practical instruc- 
tion in the various mechanical arts. 

The instruction in shop work is given by means of exercises so planned as to cover, 
in a systematic manner, the operations in use in the various trades. 

The object of the course being to give instruction in the use of tools, only such 
constructions are made as cover principles without undae repetition. 

The first instruction in carpentering and joining is in the use of the saw and plane 
in working wood to given dimensions, and a series of elementary exercises follow 
in order, such as practice in making square joints, different kinds of dovetails, the 
various tenons, roof-trusses, panels, etc. 

The instruction in turning and circular-section patternmaking is given from a 
series of models ; also, bench patterns are made for subsequent use in the foundry. 

The foundry course consists in casting from the patterns which the student him- 
sels lias previously made. Many of the pieces cast from these patterns are used in 
his clipping and filing work. 

In the forge shop are taught the management of the fire and the degree of heat 
necessary to forge the different metals. 

Drawing, forming, bending, upsetting, fagoting, splitting, punching, chamfering, 
annealing, tempering, case-hardening, etc., are taught by means of a series of exer- 
cises in which the elements of the iron-forger's art are particularly dwelt upon. 
Every piece is made to certain dimensions laia down upon the drawing, the article 
being forged before the class by the instructor, who directs attention to the essential 
feature of the operation, which is then repeated by each student. 

The course in vise work includes filing to line, filing to template, free-hand filing, 
fitting, and chipping straight and grooved surfaces in cast iron, wrought iron and 
steel. 

In the machine shop the student, after having the lathe and its mechanical con- 
struction explained to him, is taught centering, tape-turning, chucking, reaming, 
inside and outside screw-cutting, bolt-turning, etc. He is then required to construct 
some piece of mechanism in which many of these principles are involved. 

Drawing. 
Drawing extends through the entire three years. 

This work is looked upon as of the highest importance, and the effort is to make 
the instruction thorougn, practical and of direct utility. Considerable time is devoted 
to free-hand drawing, as it is believed that it not only assists in mechanical drawing, 
but is of great service in after years, whatever the occupation chosen. 

The mechanical drawing consists of a series of exercises, and such are selected as 
will be of subsequent use. They are arranged in progressive order, beginning with 
geometrical constructions involving straightlines and circular arcsonly, and ending 
with the more complex curves, such as the ellipse, helix, epicycloid, etc. 

Projection is next taken up. The instruction in this is from models, so that the 
student may have before him the actual object from which the projection is made, 
and not be obliged to depend upon his unaided conception. After completing this 
work he is required to draw parts of machines from actual measurements. For this 
purpose he is given some piece of mechanism to sketch and measure, and of which, 
finally, he is to make complete working drawings. 



302 Keport of the 

The mathematical instruction of the course covers algebra, plane 
and solid geometry, plane and spherical trigonometry and land sur- 
veying, taught with special reference to this class of students, many 
practical applications being made. At present the department is well 
equipped, but additions of machinery are being made, from time to 
time, to meet the requirements of the course. 

Mechanical Engineering. 

The object of this course is to prepare students in those subjects 
which will enable them to design machines or plants of machinery 
upon scientific principles. 

The instruction is given by means of lectures and recitations, with 
practice in the shops and laboratories. It treats of the mechanical 
properties of materials, of the motions and efficacy of machines, of 
the production, measurement and distribution of power. 

Excursions are occasionally made in order that students may witness 
running machinery, methods of carry power, arrangement of shafting, 
and manufacturing processes. 

The study of steam engineering involves the principles and appli- 
cations of thermodynamics, the characteristics and use of different 
fuels, the 2:eneration of steam with the construction of generators, 
and the mechanism and efficiency of the various steam engines. 
Students are also required to design different forms of valve gearing 
from data given them. 

Instruction is given on hydraulic motors, windmills, pumps, air 
engines and other machines. 

Drawing is carried on in connection with recitations. It includes 
sketching machines and drawing to scale from those sketches, making 
detail and sectional drawings, and designing machines, thus applying 
the principles and knowledge acquired in the class room. The entire 
work is made as practical as is consistent with a thorough theoretical 
training. A course in shop work is required, besides the experimental 
work with boilers, indicators, inspirators, governors, testing strength 
of materials, etc. At the close of the course each student presents a 
thesis, in which he is to give evidence of his efficiency by explaining 
and illustrating some work of original research, or by designing and 
describing with plates some piece of mechanism. 

The courses are outlined as follows: 



Industrial Education Commission. 
Course of Mechanics Arts. 



303 





o 
1 


Studies. 


Hours 

per 
week. 


Shop-Wokk and 
Drawing. 


Hours 

per 

week. 


fi 


1 


United States History, . . 

Arithmetic, 

English Grammer, . . . 


3 

4 
5 


Carpentering, 

Geometrical Free-h a n d- 
Drawing, 


4 
5 


< 


!4 


Algebra begun, 

English Composition, . . 
United States History, . . 


5 
5 
5 


Carpentering and Joining, 
Model and Object Draw- 
ins^, . . . 


8 
5 


a 






fe 


1 


Algebra, 

English Composition, . . 
Book-keeping, 


5 
5 
4 


Wood-turning, 

Designing, 


6 
5 




1 


Geometry, 

Algebra, 

Physics, 


2 
4 
4 


Patternmaking, 

Geometrical Drawing, . . 


4 

4 


.; 






<1 




Geometry, 

Algebra, 

Physics, 


2 
4 
4 
2 


Foundry Work, 

Orthographic Projection 
and Intersections, . . . 


6 
5 


o 
o 


English, 




w 

9Q 




Geometry, 

Algebra, 

Mechanics, 

Civil Government, . . . 


4 
5 
3 

2 


Forging, 

Development of Surfaces 
and Isometric Perspec- 
tive, 


8 
6 










1 


Algebra, 


4 
3 

4 


Forging, ... . . 

Linear Perspective and 

Shades and Shadows, . 


6 


« 


Geometry, 

Mechanics, 


9 




© 
1 


Geometry, 

Trigonometry, 

Rhetoric, 


3 
3 

4 


Vise Work, 

Detail Drawing, 


6 

9 


H 




Trigonometry and Sur- 
veying, 

Mechanicism, 


5 
3 


Machine Tool Work. 
Machine Designing. 





It will be seen that the shop work in the mechanical engineering 
course is very similar to that required of the students in the elemen- 
tary mechanic arts course. There is, however, this difference : In the 
last year of the advanced course, the shop work is almost entirely 
machine construction of the student's own designing. Besides this, 
testing the strength of materials, experimental work with boilers, in- 
spirators, governors, indicators, etc., is a prominent feature of their 
work. 



304 Eeport of the 

Course in Mechanical KNaiNEERiNG. 

FRESHMAN CLASS. 

Fall Session. — Algebra, (4); Geometry, (2); German, (5); History, (4). 

I*racticums. — Drawing, Geometrical and Projection, (4); Carpentry, 
(4). 
Winter Session.— Trigonometry, (2); Geometry, (4); Rhetoric, (4); German, (5). 

Practicams. — Drawing, Lntersections, (2); Carpentry, (6). 
Spring Session.— TrigouonxQir J, (5); Physiology, (3); German, (5); Tactics, (2). 

Practicums. — Drawing, Intersections and Developments, (4); 
Wood turning, (4). 

SOPHOMORE CLASS. 

Fall Session. — Analytic Geometry, (4); Chemistry, (4); German, (2); French, (3); 
History, (2); Surveying, (1). 
Practicums. — Surveying, (4); Chemistry, (4). 
Winter *S'e55ion.— Analytic Geometry, (4) ; Chemistry, (4) ; German, (2) ; French, 
(3); History, (2). 
Practicums.— Gh.Q\mBir J, (8); Patternmaking, (2). 
Spring Session. — French, (3); Differential Calculus, (4); Descriptive Geometry, 
(4); Mechanics of Machinery, (5). 
Practicums. — Mechanism, (6) ; Drawing, Descriptive Geometry, 
(4). 

JUNIOR CLASS. 

Fall Session.— Vhj^iQ^y Mechanics and Heat, (4); Descriptive Geometry, Maps, 
Shades, Shadows, etc., (4); Integral Calculus, (3); Mechanics of 
Machinery, (4). 
Winter Session. — Analytical and Graphical Statics, (4); Physics, Electricity, (4); 
Materials of Construction, (3); Determinants, (2); Valve Gear- 
ing, (2). 
Practicums. — Physics, (4); Forging, (6). 
Spring Sessio7i. — Kinetics and Kinematics, (4); Quarternions, (4); Materials of Con- 
struction, (3); Physics (4). 
Practicums. — Chipping and Filing, (6); Mineralogy, (4). 

SENIOR CLASS. 

Fall Session. — Thermodynamics, Lectures, (3) ; Statics of Machinery and Lubri- 
cants, (4); Geology, (4); Political Economy, (4). 
Practicums. — Mechanical Drawing, (6); Engine Lathe Work, (6). 
Winter Session. — Machine Design, (3); Steam and Steam Engines, (4); Experi- 
mental work with Indicators, Injectors and Governors, (2); 
Constitutional Law, (4) ; Astronomy, (3). 
Practicums. — Mechanical Drawing, (4); Machine Construction 
and Testing Strength of Materials, (6). 
Spring Session. — Machine Design, (5); Electrical Machinery, (3); Hydraulic Motors, 
(3); International Law, (4). 
Practicums. — Machine Construction, (4); Thesis Work, (6). 

The following series of plates, showing the carefully arranged 
course of shop work in wood and iron working, is borrowed from the 
Annual Report of the Pennsylvania State College, as the best avail- 
able illustration of a progressive series of exercises for a course in 
mechanic arts : 



Industrial Edfcatiox Commission. 



305 



\ \ i V7 7m 



^ 



9 ^ a 



Pf 



T I ,1 -T 



am 
(fi)» 






fti-. ii7?lt 



nrFi 



B 






/5 2^ 



]9tO 






/^ 






ia 



1^^ 



/J" 



Hi- 



Z'^ -^ 



VMM. 



VTTX 



V//A Y////AT 



n 

■mm 



ot 



mm 



Plan of First Floor. 

Shaping machine. 
Iron-turning lathe. 
Power grindstone. 
Bench vises, for filing. 
Hot water sink. 
Tool room. 
Closet. 

Cold water sink. 
Stairway to second floor. 
Posts to which main shaft is attached. 
Forges. 

Stands for tools and work. 
Anvils. 

Large vises attached to post. 
Iron room. 
i6. Steel pressure blower. 

17. Closet. 

18. Main shaft. 

19. Coal tanks for forges. 

20. Water tanks. 



I. 
2. 
3- 

4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 
II. 
12. 

13- 
14. 

15- 



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21. Chimney. 

22. Box shear. 

23. 16-inch P. & W. lathes, turret head. 

24. 5-inch Sellers' planer. 

25. Sellers' drill press. 

26. Lumber room. 



306 



REPOKr OF THE 



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Plan of Second Floor. 

Work benches in carpenter shop. 

Chimney. 

Hydrant and sink. 

Office. 

Cases with specimens of work. 

Wood-turning lathes. 

Shaft which moves lathes. 

Circular saw. 

Stairway to attic. 

Stairway from first to second floor. 

Grindstone. 

Wood planer. 

Scroll saw. 

Universal woodworker. 



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Industrul Edfcation Commission. 



307 



FIRST LESSON. 




Planing. 

The student is given a rough one-inch pine board from which he is to saw 
a piece 12 inches long and 4 inches wide. The difference bet^vcen a ripping- 
and cross-cutting saw is here explained to him. He planes one side smooth, 
using the proper planes, and from this face the edges and other side are worked, 
making the edges at right angles and face parallel to the working face. No 
effort is made in this exercise to work to dimensions. 



SECOND LESSON, 




Planing Square Prism. 

In this exercise, the material is 14 inches long and 2 inches square section. 
Two adjacent sides are first smoothed, care being taken to keep them at right 
angles to each other. With a gauge, it is then marked to i^ inches square and 
carefully worked to these lines. One end is then dressed with block plane and 
the piece sawed off and dressed to a length of exactly 12 inches. 



308 



Report of the 



THIRD LESSON. 




The finished piece of the last exercise is now taken, and by method illus- 
trated in accompanying cut, is marked so as to be planed to a regular octagon. 
The bevel is put at angle A B C=i35°, so that the vvrork can be tested as it 
proceeds. 



FOURTH LESSON. 



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Through Mortise and Tenon. 

In this, as in the two following, the piece is gotten out 12 inches long and 
squared as in No. 2. It is then sawed in two pieces s)4, and 6}i inches in length. 
Mortise is laid off on 6}i inch piece and tenon on 5^2 inch piece, marking being 
done with knife except when mortise gauge is used. The tenon is cut with the 
back saw, and the mortise bored and chiseled out. The ends are then cut to 
proper dimensions. 



Industrial Education Commission. 



309 



FIFTH LESSON. 



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Polished Mortise and Tenon. 

This piece is merely another form of No. 4, involving the same operations 
with a few modifications, as can be seen in the drawing. 



SIXTH LESSON. 



Double Mortise and Tenon. 



The same as previous lessons, except there are two mortises and tenons 
instead of one. 



310 



Report of the 



SEVENTH LESSON. 



6- 




Brace Mortise and Tenon. 

The brace is put at an angle of 45° and made of material i}i x ^ inches. 
Tenon is flush with one side of brace and a shoulder cut on end. The whole 
brace is slightly dropped into mortise piece. 



EIGHTH LESSON. 



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Concealed Mortise and Tenon. 



This differs from the preceding only that the mortise does not pass 
through the piece. 



Industrlu. Education Commissiox 



311 



NINTH LESSON. 



Double Mortise and Tenon. 

Another form of double mortise and tenon, made from inch material 
differing slightly in detail and being somewhat more difficult to fit. 



TENTH LESSON. 





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4^i" 



Open Dove-tail Joint. 

The most elementary form of a dove-tail joint, affording exercise in laying 
off and cutting the mortise and tenons at oblique angles. 



312 



Report of the 



ELEVENTH LESSON. 



\ 1)1;.; , 1_ 



Keyed Scarf Joint. 

This, on account of its oblique faces and splayed ends, is somewhat diffi- 
cult to fit. The key forces tTie pieces into position and securely holds them 
there. 



TWELFTH LESSON. 



Mitre Joint. 

The mitres are cut at an angle of 45° without 
using a mitre box, and are then glued together. 
Great care is required to make the glued pieces 
form a right angle. 



Industrial Education Commission 



313 



THIRTEENTH LESSON. 



Lap Joint. 



In this, as in the preceding one, the difficulty is to make a neat fit at right 
angles. 



314 



Rkpop.t of the 



FOURTEENTH LESSON. 




Hopper Lap Joint. 

In the drawing but one angle of the hopper is shown, but the student 
makes the complete hopper. The method of laying off the work, which is 
somewhat complicated, is fully explained to him, and in no case is he permitted 
to proceed until it is laid out with precision. 



lNDrSTRL\I. Pj>rCATIOX COMMISSION 



315 



FIFTEENTH LESSON. 



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5" 



Gained Joint. 

The inner surface of the gain must be fiat and true, in order to produce 
the proper angle. The joint is glued. 



316 



Report of the 



SIXTEENTH LESSON. 



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Lap Dove-tail Joint. 
A more difficult form to lay off, cut and dress. 



Industpjal Education Co>rMissioN. 



317 



SEVENTEENTH LESSON, 






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Through Dove-tail Joint. 

The simplest form of a dove-tail joint at right angles, affording practice 
in laying off, cutting and dressing the corresponding parts to exact form and 
dimensions. 



EIGHTEENTH LESSON. 





\ 






















\ 


/ 








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Mitre Box. 



The box is for subsequent use in sawing mitres and must be made with 
great precision, angles, and right angles, and bottom of uniform width. 



318 



Report of the 



NINETEENTH LESSON, 





Moulding. 

In this the work is laid off from an oblique section as indicated in drawing 
but of full size. The drawing of the oblique section is laid upon the material 
at the proper angle and pricked through, thus marking the lines at which the 
surfaces change direction. The proper tools are now taken and the material 
worked to the desired form. The hollow and rounding planes are used here 
for the first time. 



TWENTIETH LESSON. 



kJ 



Another Form of Moulding. 



Much as the former, except here a right section is taken from which to lay 
off the work, and the marking is done on the end of the piece. 



InDUSTRI AI. EdUC ATI ON C OMMI S STON . 



319 



TWENTY-FIRST LESSON. 



8- 



Glue Joints. 

This is made from alternate Cherry and Walnut strips so that the quality 
of the work can be seen at a glance. 



TWENTY-SECOND LESSON. 






o 



o 



Dowel Joints. 

In this also two kinds of wood are used alternately. The drawing shows 
the nature of the work. 



320 



Report of the 



TWENTY-THIRD LESSON 











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Gothic Panel. 

This exercise affords a variety of work. The inner edges of stiles are 
chamfered, the upper rail has moulding worked upon it, and the bottom of 
panel is veneered along the top of a piece of moulding placed above the lower 
rail. The panel and veneer are made of fancy woods, thus presenting a hand- 
some appearance when completed. 



Industrial Education Commission. 



321 



TWENTY-FOURTH LESSON. 



-IV* 





Wood Carving. 



The work is laid off with gauge, after the stick is dressed square. 
Templates are made from curves in full size sectional drawings. The cutting 
is done with chisels and carving tools, the templates being frequently applied 
in order to keep the moulding of proper shape and uniform size. 



322 



Report of the 



TWENTY-FIFTH LESSON. 




6'" 



Ornamental Veneering. 

The different pieces of veneer are made of different kinds of wood, thus 
producing a beautiful effect. It requires considerable care to bring the lines 
of divisions as indicated in the drawing. 



TWENTY-SIXTH LESSON. 




Ornamental Inlaying. 

Seven narrow strips of different kinds of veneer are glued together, so as 
to form a piece )i inch wide. That is then inlaid in a solid piece of hard 
wood, as shown in the drawing, a number of them being placed at regular 
distances apart. 



Industrul Education Co^onssiox 



323 



TWENTY-SEVENTH LESSON. 





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Marquetry. 

The narrow strips and diamond-shaped pieces are inlaid and made of 
different wood from the block into which they are put. 



Machine Work in Wood. 



The appliances for this work are as follows: Six wood-turning lathes, 
strained scroll saw, planer and circular sawing machine. With each lathe is a 
set of six turning chisels, a set of six gouges, a parting tool, a pair of calipers, 
a pair of compasses, a try-square, a two-foot rule and an oil can. 

In this course not only the use of tools is necessary, but the eye must be 
carefully trained, as many of the varied forms which arise in wood-turning are 
tedious and difficult to measure. A skilled workman should, therefore, be able 
to produce work without measuring the smaller details that shall conform 
substantially to the drawing. 



324 



Report of the 



FIRST LESSON. 




A Cylinder. 

A piece nine inches long and two inches square is taken. The comers 
are turned off and it is worked down to nearly the desired size with the gouge. 
The chisel is then used to work it to the given dimensions, which is determined 
by frequent application of the calipers. 



SECOND LESSON. 




Common Cuts in Turning. 



The drawing represents half the length, the remaining half being a repeti- 
tion of what is shown. In this the cutting lines are marked and the depth is 
gauged by the use of calipers, but the forms of the curves in middle of the 
piece are determined entirely by the eye. 



Industpjal Edfcatiox Commissiox. 



325 



THIRD LESSON. 



Cross section. 



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Ornamental Turning. 

In this we have a variety of curves, besides a loose ring to be turned upon 
the small cylinder, as sho\^'n in the transverse section in the drawing. The parts 
are all worked to given dimensions. 

These pieces represent the elementar)- part of the work, and the student is 
kept upon these until he can produce them accurately and with rapidity. 



326 



Report of the 



FOURTH LESSON, 




Face Plate Turning. 



A piece six inches square is fastened upon the face plate from which the 
rosette, as indicated in the drawing, is to be turned. 



Industrial Education Commission. 



327 



FIFTH LESSON. 





Newel Post Cap. 

The main part of the cap is made of Walnut. The central rosette, which is 
turned to fit into it, is of Cherry. 



SIXTH LESSON. 




A Cylindrical Ring. 

This piece is turned, both inside and outside, and consequently requires 
two chuckings. It is made of either Cherry or Walnut. 



328 



Report of the 



SEVENTH LESSON. 




Ornamental Vase. 

As can be seen in section, the vase is made with a Hd which fits neatly upon 
it The vase is turned both inside and outside as in case of the ring, but here 
the chucking is more difficult, and fitting the lid requires very carefiil work. 
There is a loose ring turned on the stem. 



EIGHTH LESSON, 




Hand Wheel. 
The rim and hub are turned. The spokes are cut out with saw and chisel. 



Industrlvl Education Coistmission 



329 



NINTH LESSON. 




Grooved Wheel. 

It Is made in two pieces, each of which is turned separately on an arbor. 
The inner part of one is turned the reverse of the other. When worked to 
nearly the given dimensions, they are both put upon the same arbor, driven 
tightly together, and finished in this position. 



Pattern-Making. 



The student is now ready for pattern-making, in which he will apply the 
knowledge and skill acquired in both carpentry and wood-turning. 

As the applications for patterns extend into nearly every industry, a great 
variety of forms is required, and from these many courses of equal value might 
be arranged. In this course, with a few exceptions, we have, therefore, no fixed 
exercises for each class. After a few preliminary ones, the students are 
required to make patterns from drawings, previously made of some machine 
or part of a machine, which they are to construct later in their course. 

The fact that the patterns are to be actually used is an incentive to good 
work. During the construction the student is shown how the grain should lie 
in the different pieces forming the pattern ; where and what allowance is to be 
made for warping, shrinking, &c., and in what manner the different forms 
should be constructed to draw properly from the sand. The following plates 
are only preparatory to this course : 



330 



Report of the 



FIRST LESSON. 




T Pipe. 

The pattern is made in halves. 

The body and flanges are first completed, the branch is then made and 
fitted to the body. Care must be taken that the branch is of such length that 
the fitting will bring to the size desired. 



Industrial Education CoMisnssioN 



331 



SECOND LESSON. 




Return Bend. 



A ring semicircular in section is first turned of such a radius as desired for 
the bend. As much of this is then taken as required for the pattern. The 
half flanges are fastened by screws passing through the center of the pattern 
into the flange. 



332 



Report of the 



THIRD LESSON. 




LTT 
o 



Pillow Block. 

A piece is first prepared for the base of the desired size, allowing for the 
contraction of the casting in cooling. The pattern is built up from this as 
indicated in cut. The student is also required to make the core box. 



I:NDUSTmAL Education Cotvimisston. 



333 



FOURTH LESSON, 




Globe Valve. 



In this the two pieces of wood are taken of sufficient size, so that when 
pegged together the ball or body of the pattern can be taken out of them. 
The branch is then made and fitted to the ball. 



334 Report of the 



Forging. 



For this work there are eight Sturtevant forges, each supplied with blast by 
a power blower, each provided with an anvil, tongs, punches, heading tools, hot 
and cold chisels, hammer and a two-foot square. There are also in this room 
four complete sets of swedging tools, set hammers, flatters, fullers, sledges, 
two large box vises, and a self-feed post drill. A drawing laid out to the 
working dimensions is placed in the forge room for reference during the exer- 
cise. The piece is then forged in detail by the instructor before the class, 
calling attention to the important points as he proceeds with the work. The 
student himself is then required to forge the piece, the instructor giving assist- 
ance only in case of necessity. 



THE FIRST LESSON 

Comprises the building and keeping of forge fires in proper condition upon 
which, in forging, so much depends. The student is also shown what degree 
of heat is necessary, and how to determine when that degree is obtained for 
the successful working of the various forms. 



Indfstpjal Education CoMmssioN. 



335 



SECOND LESSON. 



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Drawing, Forming and. Bending. 
The successive steps of the exercise are fully explained by the drawing. 



THIRD LESSON. 







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Drawing and Forming. 

As seen in the cross sections of the finished piece, a portion is round, 
another is square, another octagonal and the one end tapered to a round point. 
The student is here shown that a welding heat is necessary in drawing common 
iron, otherwise its parts are likely to separate lengthwise. 



336 



Report of the 



FOURTH LESSON 



aoy*'-- 




|V4" 






Bending. 



One bar each of round and flat iron are bent in circular form and welded. 
In forming the staples, drawing as well as bending is involved. Whenever 
possible useful forms are invariably selected, but the introduction of principles 
is considered of the first importance, and frequently much time can be saved 
by taking plain forms. 



Indttstrml Education Commission 



337 



FIFTH LESSON. 








Fagot Welding. 

The one piece is two feet long for the purpose of holding it while welding 
upon it two four-inch pieces. In welding and rounding the ends, it is drawn 
out one inch. It is then cut off, and the ends dressed, making the finished 
piece five inches long. 



338 



Report of the 



SIXTH LESSON. 



■eva" 



%" 



' Upsetting and Bolt-making. 

The material is six inches long. By upsetting it is diminished in length, 
while the part upset is increased in cross section, and squared in preparation 
for the head of the bolt of the finished piece. 



SEVENTH LESSON. 



Upsetting while bending. 

As bending slightly diminishes the cross 
section, it is necessary to upset a little, while 
bending, so that the piece will be of the same 
form and thickness throughout when finished. 



Industrial Education Go^imission. 



339 



EIGHTH LESSON. 




n 



-6'-^- 



Upsetting Before Bending. 

This piece is made heav}' at the tniddle, and bent at that point. It makes 
a nruch stronger angle than the preceding one. 



NINTH LESSON. 



Bending and Twisting. 

The bar is bent without upsetting. It is a post floor hanger, and is twisted 
to bring it to the proper shape to receive the timber. 



340 



Report of the 



TENTH LESSON. 



M— -^— -l^^a i ^- 




3V8- i 



Drawing, Bending and Twisting. 

The ends are drawn out for hook and eye and made round. The twist in 
central part is ornamental. The S hook is to accustom the student to forming 
graceful curves with iron. 



Industrlm. Education Commisstox. 



341 





ELEVENTH LESSON. 












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Upsetting, Welding, Forming and Punching. 
A tool for making the heads of bolts, &c., called a heading-tool. 


• 



342 



Report of the 



TWELFTH LESSON. 



2_^ 




^ 2.-----'- > 



Bracket. 
This involves upsetting, drawing, bending, chamfering and punching. 



Industpjal Education Colons sign. 



343 



THIRTEENTH LESSON. 



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Ring. 

The ring is made from three pieces welded together. The main part being 
made of lighter material than the ends and angles. 



FOURTEENTH LESSON. 



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10-- 



BuTT OR Jump Weld. 

The ends are upset and made square after which they are welded by butting 
them together Instruction is given as to how the weld should be dressed to 
preserve its strength. 



344 



Report of the 



FIFTEENTH LESSON. 



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274 



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Bolts and Rivets. 

These are formed with the heading-tool made in lesson eleven. The prin- 
cipal feature in this exercise is to keep the stem in the centre of the head. 

SIXTEENTH LESSON. 



Vi 



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—6-"-- 



^ 



^ 




f Bolt-making. 

The stock is upset as in a previous lesson, but in this the head is made 
hexagonal instead of square. Great care is necessary to make the head regular, 
and as in the lesson above, to keep the body of piece in centre of head. 



Industrial Education Com]mission 



345 



SEVENTEENTH LESSON, 



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Nuts. 



The drawing explains the method of making hexagonal and square nuts. 



346 



REPORr OF THE 



EIGHTEENTH LESSON. 



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Eye Stay or Brace. 

The two ends are bent so as to be at right angles to each other while 
making different angles with the bar. The eye is formed from the body of the 
piece, while the tang is formed separately and welded on. 



NINETEENTH LESSON. 



C 



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V 



Welding Links. 

In this the scarf is somewhat different from that in the ordinary weld. The 
links are twisted in the finished chain. 



Industrial Education Commission 



347 



TWENTIETH LESSON. 



3y^" 



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Hasp. 
This brings in splitting, in connection with what has been given before. 



TWENTY-FIRST LESSON 



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Same as in a preceding lesson, except one piece is bent on its edge. The 
two are put together to show difference in the scariing. 



348 



Report of the 



TWENTY-SECOND LESSON. 



X 



1 





Rope Hook. 

The eye is formed by turning and welding it in such a manner as to give it 
the appearance of being punched. 



TWENTY-THIRD LESSON. 








Chain Hook. 

In this the eye is punched and the greatest care is taken to give it the 
maximum strength with the material used. 



Industrial Education Com:nussion. 



349 



TWENTY-FOURTH LESSON. 



Welded Corner. 

Two pieces welded at right angles, illustrating the kind of scarf necessary 
for this weld. 



TWENTY-FIFTH LESSON. 



4"--- 



T Weld. 



In this the pieces are welded in the form of a T. The scarf is somewhat 
different and the weld is more difficult to make. 



350 



Report of the 




Blacksmith Tongs. 

The jaws are made from ]/& inch square iron and welded to lighter pieces 
for the handles. This exercise combines nearly all the principles that have 
been gone over in former lessons and closes the course in iron forging. 



Steel Forging, 



The student has now acquired considerable skill in producing forms, as 
well as regulating heat in the working of iron. In working steel slight varia- 
tions are necessary, but he soon becomes familiar with these and is ready to 
take up hardening, tempering and annealing, which are of supreme importance 
in the making of tool's, &c. 



TWENTY-SEVENTH LESSON. 





Va" 




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1 

1 


Vf 



Welding. 
Steel to iron and steel to steel by lap weld. 



Industrl\l Education CoMMissro:^. 



351 



TWENTY EIGHTH LESSON. 



Vs" 



< 6'- 



Iron and Steel Welding. 
Steel welded to iron by split scarfing. 



TWENTY-NINTH LESSON, 




Wrench. 

This is formed here to be finished in the filing course which follows. The 
student here finds the difference between working iron and steel. 



THIRTIETH LESSON. 



4. 



P--- 



,2- ^ 



Blacksmith's Punch. 
After forging it is hardened and tempered. 



352 



Report ok the 



THIRTY-FIRST LESSON. 



a 



Q 



Flat Cold Chisel. 
The forging is a sample form, but it gives practice in tempering. 

THIRTY-SECOND LESSON. 




Cape Chisel. 



Forming and tempering. 



THIRTY-THIRD LESSON. 



O: 



Drill. 

Here the form is somewhat more difficult to produce, and is tempered to 
a dark straw color instead of a brown, as in the two preceding lessons. 



Industpjal Education Commission. 



353 



THIRTY-FOURTH LESSON 



Ik 



7-- 



Z^ 



Lathe Tool. 
Forged as indicated and properly tempered. 



THIRTY-FIFTH LESSON. 



ivw 




3- 



SiDE Tool. 

These tools are comparatively easy to form after the course in iron forging, 
but close attention is necessary to properly temper them. 



354 



Report of the 



THIRTY-SIXTH LESSON. 



%-r 




7 



Plane Iron*. 

In the preceding lessons on tempering the pieces have been hardened on 
or near the cutting edge, while in this the whole piece is tempered. 



Vise Work 



For this work the shop is provided with eight swivel vises, and a supply of 
small tools, as follows : Cold chisels of different forms, chipping hammers, an 
assortment of files, file cards, try-squares, calipers, scratch gauges, hand vises, 
&c., &c. This course is intended to give practice in the use of different hand 
tools for metal, and also to teach the student how to keep them in order. 
Each lesson is varied in such a manner as to insure the introduction of the 
different shaped files. The castings are planed, not true, to remove the rough 
scales which are so injurious to files. 



Industrlvl Editcation Commission, 



355 



FIRST AND SECOND LESSONS. 



-4- 



Filing to Line. 

I. A plain block of cast iron is taken, and one face is filed true. The 
student is taught how to hold the file and move the arms to produce a true 
surface. 

II. An edge and end are filed square with true surface, using a try-square 
to test the accuracy of the work. 



THIRD LESSON. 



1" 



1 



Filing Half Hexagon. 



The same casting is used as in lessons one and two. The student lays out 
a half hexagon on the end of the piece, lines it, and then files it to the lines as 
indicated in the figure. 



356 



Report of the 



FOURTH LESSON. 



^A^A\M J 



D 



-4 ^ 



Rack-Teeth. 
This piece shows the different files used to form sharp angles of this kind. 



FIFTH LESSON. 



y* 





^ L 


-■ 



DOVE-TAILING. 

The piece being of wrought iron shows the difference of working the two 
metals. It introduces drilling, sawing and filing. _ 



Industrial Education Commission. 



357 



SIXTH LESSON. 



i, ^ ^ 

! : 

I 1 1 



PAfi" 



Screw Blank. 

This is reduced in size its entire length ; then a portion is reduced more 
than the other forming a shoulder, the reduced portion being kept round in 
section and in the centre of the stock. 



SEVENTH LESSON, 




Wrench. 

The wrench made in the forging course. It introduces inside and outside 
cutves, and a square hole to be filed from a round one. 



358 



Rp:roRT OF the 



EIGHTH LESSON, 





Ring Work. 

The material for this exercise is on the right in the drawing and two pro- 
jections of the finished piece are on the left. The object is to make the ring 
circular in section from the casting which is square in section, and to make all 
the surfaces of the tang straight and at right angles to each other. 



NINTH LESSON. 



Chipping Bevel. 



The casting is lined by the student the proper distance from the edge 
which is to be beveled. It is cut down to the line, using a hammer and flat 
cold chisel. 



Indtjstcml Edfcatiox Commission 



359 



TENTH LESSON. 




Oval Filing. 

A flat piece of cast iron upon which an oval shape is marked out. It is 
drilled out as near to the marks as possible, and then chipped and filed to the 
line. 



ELEVENTH LESSON. 



Thread Cutting. 



A line representing the thread is marked off twelve times around the 
piece, the pitch being kept the same throughout. The filing is done by using 
tiiie half-round and three-cornered files. 



360 



Report of the 



TWELFTH LESSON. 



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71 1 








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Chipping (Wrought Iron.) 

A rectangular groove X x X inch is chipped entirely across the face of the 
piece, and another groove >^ x ^ inch three-eighths of the distance across. 



THIRTEENTH LESSON. 



V J 


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<. 



-2ya''— 



<— 2V . 



CHIPPING. 



Same block is used. An oval is cut upon one side introducing concave 
chipping, as is shown in the right-hand projection. 



Inditstfual Education Commission. 



361 



FOURTEENTH LESSON. 



ru 



\ 



-a' 



Convex Chipping. 



Here, on same block, is introduced convex chipping in the form of a half 
cylinder part way across the face of the piece. Also, more concave cutting. 



FIFTEENTH LESSON. 



Hand Vise Filing. 

A round piece of steel is reduced in diameter its entire length and filed at 
one end to a tapering joint. 



362 



Report of the 



SIXTEENTH LESSON. 


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The casting is lined 
practice which he has ac 
file may necessitate his t 


Parallel Fitting. 

by the student and fitted as 
quired is here called into us€ 
)eginning a new piece. 


shown in the plate. The 
5 as one misstroke of the 



IXDUSTRLVI. EdTTATIOX CoM^IISSIOX. 



363 



Machine Work in Iron. 



In this course, after a few elementary pieces, the student is required to 
build some machine. If it is too large for one to complete during his course, 
more students are put upon it, and in this way a working piece of mechanism 
is produced, the result of their combined efforts. We hope, by this method, to 
add to our equipment special machines designed and built by our own students 
in mechanical engineering. Some little work has already been done by special 
students. Below will be found a few of the elementary lessons required by 
all students who enter upon this work. 



SECOND LESSON. 




2" 



u 



Plain Turning. 



The piece is centred, put upon the lathe and ends faced up, making it 
exactly six inches in length. It is then turned down its entire length to two 
inches in diameter. A portion of it is then cut down to a smaller diameter, 
leaving a square shoulder one and one-half inches from the end. The ends 
are then chamfered. The exercise gives practice in selecting, grinding and 
setting the proper cutting tools. 



364 



Report of the 



THIRD LESSON. 




Taper Turning. 

The finished piece of last exercise is taken for the stock of this. The object 
of this lesson is to show how, by moving, the toil stock to the front or rear, any 
desired taper may be turned. 



FOURTH LESSON. 




I 
i 



Chucking and Boring. 

The solid blank is centred, and then bored out by placing the drill in the 
slot of tool posts and using toil stock to force drill through. 



Industpjai. Education Commission. 



365 



FIFTH LESSON. 



, 6" 




A Handle. 

This lesson gives practice in using the cross feed by hand to produce a 
given curve, while the longitudinal feed is operated by the lathe. 



SIXTH LESSON, 




Connecting Rod.^ 



This involves about all the principles of the preceding lessons besides 
some planer work. 



366 



Report of the 



SEVENTH LESSON. 





1 












f ■ - ...... ^ 




1" 




\ 





















Screw Cutting. 

The student is shown how to arrange the gearing for cutting threads of 
different pitch. He then cuts twelve threads to the inch upon the bolt given 
him. 



EIGHTH LESSON. 




Inside Screw Cutting. 
The thread is cut for the bolt in the preceding lesson. 



Industrial Education Commission. 



367 



NINTH LESSON 



© i 




SURFACE GAUGE. 

MADi: JiY SrUDKXTS IN THE PENNSYEVTATsriA STATE COJJ.EGP: 



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.70 -^ H> 




Industrial Education Commission. 3u9 

8. Swarthraore College. 

Swarthmore College ofiers four courses of study. 1. Course in arts, 
2. Course in letters, 3. Course in science, 4. Course in engineering 

Candidates for admission to the freshman class are examined in the 
following subject: Mathematics: — Arithmetic, algebra, through equa- 
tions of the second degree of one unknown quantity, geometry. The 
whole of plane geometry : English: — History, geography. 

In addition to the above^ the candidate will he examined in one of 
the following subjects as he may elect : 

5. Latin. — Caesar, Gallic War, four books; Virgil's JEneid, six 
books; Allen's Latin Composition; as much knowledge of Eoman 
antiquities as may be gained from Wilkin's Primer ; as much knowl- 
edge of classical geography as man be gained from Tozer's Primer; 
and as much knowledge of classical mythology as may be gained from 
Cox's Manual of Mythology. 

For the Caesar other Latin may in certain cases be substituted, but 
only in accordance with previous agreement. 

6. French. — The candidate should be familiar with the grammar, 
especially with the formation and use of verbs. He should be able 
to read easy French at sight, and to translate simple English sentences 
into French. 

7. German. — The preparation in German should occupy one year. 
The candidate should be able to read easy German at sight, and to 
translate simple English sentences into correct German. 

Candidates lor the classical section must pass the above examina- 
tion in Latin. 

Greek is not required for admission, but students who have been 
prepared in Greek may continue in that language with students in 
the higher college classes. 

Candidates for the scientific section, who have had no opportunity 
to prepare in Latin, French or German, will not be rejected on account 
of such deficiency, if they are otherwise qualified. An opportunity 
will be offered to make up the deficiency after admission. 

For Advanced Standing — Candidates must be further examined in 
the studies already pursued by the class for which they present them- 
selves ; but in the case of such students, real equivalents are accepted 
for any of the studies gone over by the class. 

Candidate for the freshman class are admitted on certificate with- 
out examination from certain approved schools. 

The cost ot board and tuition is $450 per year. 

A deduction of $100 per year is made to all students who are chil- 
dren of members of the religious society of friends. 

For day scholars the price is $200 per year. 

The course in engineering, leading to the degree of bachelor of 
science in engineering offers, in its various studies and exercises, a 
24 Ed. Com. 



370 Repokt of the 

training which is believed to be well adapted to the needs of civil and 
of mechanical engineers, as well as of the large class who are to be 
concerned with the mateiial interest of the country, with manufactur- 
ing, with industrial pursuits, or with any of the many other occupa- 
tions allied to engineering. It embraces liberal and technical instruc- 
tion in the mathematical, physical and graphical sciences, and their 
applications, in practical field engineering, in the arts of design an<l 
construction, and in the use of tools, materials, and machinery, and in 
processes. 

Studies of the Course in Engineering. 

Elective studies must be so chosen as not to interfere with those which are pre- 
scribed. 

Fbeshman Year. 

First Semester. — Prescribed. — Shop Work and Draughting, 6; Mathematics, 
4; Chemistry, 4; Natural History, 2; Electives, 4. Total, 20 Periods. 

JElectives. — French, 4 ; History, 4 ; English, 4. 

Extras. — Phonography, 2 ; Drawing and Painting, 2 ; Pedagogics, 2 ; Elocution, "J. 

SECO^"D Semester. — Prescribed. — Shop Work and Draughting, 6; Mathematics, 
4; Chemistry, 4 ; Rhetoric, 2 ; Electives, 4. Total, 20 Periods. 

Electives. — German, 4 ; English, 4. 

Extras. — Phonography, 2 ; Drawing and Painting, 2 ; Pedagogics, 2 ; Elocution, 2. 

Sophmore Year. 

First Semester. — Pre c^-iSecZ.— Descriptive Geometery and Surveying, 4 ; Shop 
Work and Draughting, 4 ; Mathematics, 4, Chemistry, 2 ; Physics, 2 ; Electives, 4. 
Total, 20 Periods. 

Electives.— GermaTi, 4; English, 4. 

Extras. — Phonography, 2 ; Drawing and Painting, 2 ; Pedagogics, 2 ; Elocution, 2. 

Second Semester. — Prescribed.— Mechanics, 4; Shop Work and Draughting, 4 ; 
Mathematics, 4 ; Chemistry, 2 ; Physics, 2 ; Electives, 4. Total, 20 Periods. 

Electives. — French, 4; History, 4 ; English, 4 ; Elocution, 2; Descriptive Astron- 
omy, 2. 

Extras. — Phonography, 2; Drawing and Painting, 2 ; Pedagogics, 2. 

Junior Year. 

First Semester. — Prescribed. — Engineering, 6; Engineering Practice, 2; Math- 
ematics, 4 ; Physics, 4 ; Electives, 4. Total, 20 Periods. * 

^Zeci? rocs.— Chemistry, 4 ; Biology, 4 ; German, 4; History, 4 ; English 4. 

Extrts. — Phonograjjhy, 2; Drawing and Painting, 2; Pedagogics, 2; Elocution, 2. 

Second Semester. — Prescribed.— Engineering, 6; Engineering Practice, 2; 
Mathematics, 4 ; Physics, 4 ; Electives, 4. Total, 20 Periods. 

Electives. — Chemistry, 4 ; Biology, 4 ; French, 4 ; History, 4 ; English, 4. 

^'x/lras.— Phonography, 2 ; Drawing and Painting, 2 ; Pedagogics, 2 ; Elocution, 2. 

Senior Year. 

First Semester.— PrescrifterZ.— Engineering, 8; Engineering Practice, 4; Elo- 
cution, 2; Logic, 1; Geology, 1: Electives, 4. Total, 20 Periods. 

Electives.— hsivonomj, 4; Political Science, 4 ; English, 4; French, 4; Chemistry', 
4 ; Biology, 4 ; Mental and Moral Philosophy, 4 ; Physics, 4 ; Mineralogy, 2 ; Peda- 
gogics, 2. 

Extras. — Phonography, 2; Drawing and Painting, 2, 

Second Semester. — Prescribed,. — Engineering, 8; Engineering Practice, 4; Elo- 
cution, 2; Logic, 1 ; Geology, 1; Electives, 4. Total, 20 Periods. 

Electives.— A^siYonomy, 4 ; Political Science, 4 ; English, 4 ; German, 4 ; Chemistry, 
4; Biology, 4; Mental and Moral Philosophy, 4; Physics, 4; Mineralogy, 2; Peda- 
gogics, 2. 



Industrial Education Commission. 371 

^Jxtr as. —Fhonography, 2; Drawing and painting, 2. 
Physical culture is required of all. 
Essays are required throughout the course. 

The department of engineering is intended to give a good prepa- 
ration to those students who are expecting to become either civil or 
mechanical engineers. The studies and exercises are so arranged that 
the graduates will be prepared to become immediately useful in the 
office, works, or field, in subordinate positions, and, after a fair amount 
of such practice, to design and take charge of important works. 

The location of the college near Philadelphia and the many impor- 
tant manufacturing cities in its vicinity, permits frequent visits to in- 
dusdial and engineering works of every kind. 

The department is well provided with the necessary field instru- 
ments, transits, levels, plane-table, etc., and each student is made 
familiar with their use and management by practical work in the 
field and draughting room, carefully planned to illustrate the actual 
practice of the engineer. 

Included in the work of this department is a course in the mechanic 
arts, in which regular and systematic instruction is given by skilled 
instructors in the use of tools and machinery, and in processes. Pat- 
terns are made by the students from their own designs and drawings, 
of machines or parts of machines, and the castings are made, properly 
fitted together and finished according to the drawings. 

Equipment. 

The d,Taughting rooms are lighted from the north, are furnished 
with adjustable tables, models, etc., are well ventilated and warmed, 
and are opened for work during the greater part of the day. 

The engineering laboratory contains on Olsen's testing machine, 
arranged for tensile, compressive and transverse tests, a steam engine 
indicator, and other valuable appliances. It includes several shops, 
in which the students become familiar with the nature and properties 
of the materials of construction (iron, wood, brass, etc.) employed by 
the engineer, and with the processes of working them into the desired 
forms for their intended uses. They consist of 

The machine shop^ coniaining an excellent and complete assortment 
of tools, including four screw-cutting engine lathes, three speed lathes 
(simple and back geared), an iron planer, a complete universal mill- 
ing machine, a set of milling cutters adapted for general purposes and 
for making other cutters, a shaper, a twist drill grinder, two upright 
drills, an emery grinder, a mill grinder, a grindstone, fourteen vises 
(plain arid swivel), fourteen lathe chucks (combination, independenr, 
scroll and drill), a milling machine chuck, a rotary planer chuck, planer 
centers, a set of Bett's standard gauges, surface plates (Brown & 
Sharpe), three sets of twist drills, reamers, mandrels, screw-plates, ta| s 
and dies, lathe center grinder, a complete set of steam-fitters' tools 



372 Report of the 

with pipe vise, ratchet drill, etc., together with the many necessary 
small tools, hammers, chisels, files, etc. Additions are constantly being 
made to this collection as they are needed, either by manufacture in 
the shops or by purchase. Power is iurnished by a steam engine and 
boiler, the former fitted with an improved indicator, and the latter 
with the necessary attachments for determining its efficiency, etc. 

The wood working shops^ containing twenty benches with vises, and 
twenty sets of wood working tools,a grindstone and wood- turning lathes. 

The smith shop^ containing seven lorges, anvils, and sets of black- 
smith tools, bench and vise ; and 

The foundry^ with its brass furnace and other equipments. 

The details of the course vary somewhat from year to year; but in 
general, are represented by the following arrangement of the studies : 

1. Fkeshman Class. — Machine shop practice : Vise work, chipping and filing 
to line, scraping, fitting, tapping, reaming, hand-turning in brass and iron. 

Drawing. — Special geometric problems, working drawings tor the shop exercises, 
orthographic projections, shadows, brush work and tinting, machine drawing from 
copy and from measurements, gears, eccentrics, cams, pulleys, belting, etc. 

JE7igineeri7ig. — Lectures on the use of tools, on the properties of materials, etc. 

2. Sophomore Class. — Engineering : Analytical mechanics of solids and fluids ; 
descriptive geometry, including shades, shadows and perspective, and the careful 
construction of the more important problems ; land surveying, with field practice 
and map drawing. 

Machine shop practice. — Lathe work, turning, boring, screw-cutting, drilling, 
planing, milling, grinding, polishing, etc., construction of a project. 

Drawing. — VS^orking drawings for the shop exercises, sketches, drawings and blue 
prints for special work and projects, elements of machines, shadows and intersec- 
tions, finished drawings. 

3. JuNiOK Class. — Before entering upon the ivork of this year the student ynust 
have completed course S in mathematics. 

Engineering. — Theory and practice of road surveying and engineering. 

Geodesy. — Theory, adjustment and use of engineering field instruments, farm 
surveying, leveling, topographical, triangular and hydrographical surveying. 

Applied Mechanics. — Friction and other resistances, stress and strength of ma- 
terials. 

Drawing and mechanism. — Topographical, structure and machine drawing, prin- 
ciples of mechanism, visits to and sketches of special machinery and structures. 

Practical exercises in the field in the fall and spring months and in general labo- 
ratory practice, including the testing of metals and building materials, the setting 
up, testing and management of steam engines, boilers and machinery throughout 
the year; with occasional visits to mechanical establishments and to important en- 
gineering works in or near Philadelphia. 

4. Senior Class. — Before entering upon the work of this year the student must 
have completed course 4 in mathematics. 

Engineering. — Theory and practice of road surveying and engineering, continued ; 
buildijig materials, stability of structures, foundations and superstructures, bridge 
construction. 

Applied Mechanics. — Practical hydraulics, practical pneumatics, general theory of 
machines, theory of prime movers, steam engines, turbines, etc., measurement of 
power. 

Mechanism. — Principles of mechanism, of machine design, of the transmission of 
power, construction and use of tools. 

Drawing. — Stone-cutting problems, topographical, structure and machine drawing, 
plans, profiles and sections of road surveys, working drawings. 

Practical Exercises. — As in junior year, continued ; tests of building materials, 
graduating thesis. 



iNDUbTRiAL Education CoMMrssroN. 373 

9. Tidioute Public Schools. 

The following extracts from a psrsonal letter aaier dateof Dacem- 
ber 26, 1888, from the principal of the public schools of Tidioute, 
together with extracts from a newspaper article enclosed by him 
show the character of the work done here : 

'•I enclose a letter which I w^rote some time since for our home 
paper. It furnishes, I think, the most complete description of the 
work of anything I have on hand. We have not yet done anything 
in ' iron work.' I am somewhat doubtful if we ever shall do much in 
this line. It seems to me wood work or ' sloyd' is the best calculated 
to serve the purpose of manual training. Our carpenter shop and 
lathe shop are both thoroughly organized and are doing very satisfac- 
tory work. The drawing is progressing nicely. 

"Our flower gardens were a great success last summer and called 
forth many words of praise and admiration from all who vistedthem. 
This department I regard as one of the greatest aesthetic advantage 
in value and shall be much disappointed if our boys and girls do not 
make better husbands, better wives, and better citizens by this con- 
stant familiarity and association with flowers." 

'' Editor News — Dear Sir : Several inquiries have been made re- 
cently about the industrial annex of our public schools. I thought it 
might be of interest to the readers of the News to peruse a short arti- 
cle descriptive of the work now being accomplished. Many of our cit- 
izens have been kind enough to visit us this year, and have invariably 
expressed themselves not simply as being pleased but surprised at the 
excellence of the work. It would indeed be gratifying if more of our 
citizens should give us a call. The trouble, I think, is that it has been 
so long since the inception of the annex, and its development into a 
thoroughly organized workshop has been so slow that you have begun 
to think about it as something old and therefore not attractive. But 
does this sound as though it is old : A pupil who worked in the shop 
last year, on visiting it this year, said : ' I would not have known it to 
be the same room. If any one had described this I could scarcely have 
believed it.' Another said : ' Well, now, this looks like business. This 
is as well arranged as the city shops.' Similar expressions come from 
nearly all who visit the work. Citizens, you have something in the in- 
dustrial line this year to be proud of, and I am surprised that you 
know so little about it. Don't let this state continue, visit the shop 
and drawing class, ask questions and become posted in what your own 
school is permitted to do through the praiseworthy liberality of your 
philanthropic neighbor towaid the toluiion of this question of manual 
training and industrial education, which is now in our leading jour- 
nals, educational and otherwise, occupying more space in its discus- 
sions than any other phase of school work. Concerning the work in 
the past, although various lines of wcrk have been undertaken and 



374 Keport of the 

some good accomplished, yet it has not been until this year that the 
boys' department has been thoroughly organized." 

Departments of Work. 

We have now outlined five departments of work, in each of which 
some work is being accomplished. First, primary; second, drawing; 
third, floriculture or practical botany ; fourth, girl's department; Hfih, 
boys' department. 

Primary. 

In this department we teach such branches of kindergarten and 
other occupations as tend to make pupils careful, accurate and sys- 
tematic ; such devices as will vigorously develop the perceptive facul- 
ties, and thus broaden the foundation of intellectual power and 
physical skill. 

AVe give lessons in stick laying, paper folding, cutting and pasting 
paper, tablet laying, mat weaving, card board embroidery, spool 
knitting, simple crochet stitches, knitting with two needles, simple 
designs in drawing, measuring with foot rule, clay molding and sand 
molding. 

Time, one-half hour per day, material furnished, no extra teacher 
hired to help, but girls from the high school assist the regular teacher, 
two assistant gifls for each primary room. The girls are always anx- 
ious to help the lower teachers as ic helps them should they desire to 
teach afterwards. 

Drawing. 

In this department we endeavor to develop the conception of form 
through seeing objects, handling objects, making accurate measure- 
ments, etc. We represent the conception of form by paper folding, 
stick laying, drawing form of object examined, by dictation, by ac- 
tual measurement, and b}^ sketching. The foreman of the industrial 
shop, W. F. Barnes, has charge of this work, and aside from using 
Prang's industrial drawing series of textbooks and Prang's models, he 
imparts such instruction as will best fit the pupils for the advanced 
grades of work both in the shop and the mechanical drawing class. 

In our high school we have a class of 32 in mechanical drawing, 
which, considering that they only work two hours per week, have 
done excellent work; many of the designs resembling printed w^ork 
so much that many visitors have thus mistaken them. The work 
thus far has been confined chiefly to such practice exercises as tend to 
develop, skill in the use of the mechanical drawing tools. 

In this department will be included: First, plans and elevations 
of tools and machinery, by actual measurement. Second, isometric, 
or mechanical perspective. Third, development of the intersection of 
plain surfaces. Fourth, lettering. Fifth, geometrical drawing. Sixth, 
line anl brush shading, with India ink. The entire course covers a 



Industrial Education Comajission. 375 

term of three years, embracing the above with free-hand drawing. 
Time, one hour each day, Monday and Tuesda}^ afternoon. 

Floriculture or Practical Botany. 

In this department we have arranged in various ornamental designs 
six beds 30 x 40 feet. One of these is given to each room. In it they 
plant all kinds of flowering plants, chiefly hardy varieties. Boys and 
girls alike work the gardens. Our aim here is to cultivate a love for 
flowers and to teach their proper care and use. We think that 
by cultivating a few new varieties in each grade that, by the 
time a pupil passes through all the grades he will at least have 
become familiar with a few families, through which he may gain the 
acquaintance and friendship of some one that may be the means of 
leading him to a higher appreciation of the flow^er kingdom. The 
work on these gardens is done partly outside of school hours. They 
cost us last year about $60. This year they will not cost more than 
$30. All of which was raised by entertainments given by the pupils 

The WorksJiop. 

The carpentry division is now thoroughly organized and init eighty 
boA^s receive one hour's insruction during three days of each week, 
Wednesday, Thursday and Friday. 

The whole course covers three years' work. First year, carpentry 5 
second year, woorl lathe ; third, iron, tin, etc., etc. 

The facilities for this work consist of a shop two stories high 30 x 50 
feet, with an L 24 by 30 feet. The ground floor is arranged for the 
blacksmith and tin shop. When it is completed it will be furnished 
with five forf2;es. each furnished with a complete set of blacksmith 
tools, one boiler and engine, one large heating stove or furnace, which 
heats the whole building. On the second floor is the w^ood working 
shops, carpentry in one and lathes in another room. 

The carpenter shop is furnished with ten benches, double. On each 
bench are two vises, a center board, on each side of which are sus- 
pended, one cross cut saw, one rip saw, one back saw, one hammer, 
one beveFsqnare, one try square, one mallet, one pair of compasses, 
one gauge, one oil stone, one oil can, one small whisk broom for clean- 
ing bench and dusting clothes. 

Under the benches from each side are drawers and cupboards. In 
these are kept aprons, unfinished w^ork, drawing books, and edged 
tools of which each bench has two sets of smoothing planes, one join- 
ing plane, and several chisels. There is also in the room a water sink 
and basins, a grindstone, and a blackboard on which is placed by the 
foreman a drawing of each exercise, and before the boys are allowed 
to make the piece they must first copy the drawing with its measure- 
ments into a book kept by each pupil for that purpose. There is also 
a large tool room or cupboard. 



376 Report op thk 

We do not compel any one to take this work yet we have only throe 
boys who are old enough to go to the shop that do not avail themselves 
of the opportunity. Our aim in this is not alone, as some advocate, 
'^ so to train the hands and the eyes that the boys or the girls shall be 
more capable of earning a living," but in addition by bringing the 
pupil into contact with the material we would teach things rather than 
theories^ to do as well as how to do. We believe that that education 
alone is complete which brings man into harmony with nature and at 
the same time develops within him such a power, physical, mental 
and moral, that by utilizing the forces and material with which he is 
surrounded, will lead to his highest development as a thinker and a 
doer. 



Industrial Education Commiss-on. 37" 



XIX. RHODE ISLAND. 

r. Newport Industrial School. 

''l^mYPO-RT, October S2, 1888. 

" What we have done here in the industrial training for boys has 
been entirely of a private nature. We hope in another year to have 
it engrafted on our public school system. Perhaps 1 cannot answer 
your questions better than by sending you a copy of a circular we is- 
sued a year ago. We have continued the school during last year with 
an increased number of pupils, on the same plan. I think the school 
has shown that it has a good educational effect on the boys ; it brightens 
them up mentally, they take great interest in the work and like to 
stay after hours. The eifect on their other studies, most of the boys 
were from the public grammar or high schools was, I think, to guide 
their mental activity and develop their observing powers. We were 
anxious to develop the educational side of this training and to show^ 
to the people its practical result in that aspect. To those who were 
at all acquainted with our work, I think, the result fully justified our 
purpose. I send you a few^ prints of our ' shop ' in order that you 
may better understand \vhat we tried to do. 

*• Hoping that I have not wearied you with details of our work that 
may not be pertinent to your object, I am 

'' Very respectfully yours, 

"•Wm. p. Sheffield, Jr." 

Rules and Regulations. 

1. Be in shop promptly at 7 p. m. 

2. Have your working clothes on, and be at your bench ready for work without 
dela3^ 

3. During practice hours give your attention to your own ivork. 

4. Make no unnecessary conversation or noise. 

5. Do not sit upon any ot the worli benches. 

6. Keep your bench and tools neat and do not deface them in any way. 

7. You will be held accountable for all the tools at your bench. 

8. If any accident happens to a tool, or one is missing report the fact to the teacher 
immediately, 

9. Give notice to the teacher whenever it is neccessary for you to leave the room. 

10. You are not allowed to entertain visitors in the shop until you have permission 
from the teacher. 

11. V^^hen the first bell strikes you are to quit work, clean up your tools and bench 
and continue cleaning in the shop, wherever it is most required, till the striking of 
the second bell. 

12. Excuses for absence and tardiness must be rendered to the teacher immediately 
upon your return. 

13. You are allowed but three tardinesses and two absences without sufficient ex- 
cuse, if you exceed this amount it will be necessary for you to leave the school. 



378 Report of the 



XX. SOUTH CAROLINA. 

I. Brainard Institute. 

Chester, S. C, Ocioher 5, 1888. 
Dr. George W. Atherton : 

Dear Sir: * * * * * * ** 

We have no reports of our industrial work. We have not as yet 
been able to obtain a press and type or we would publish our own 
reports, and have not means to get them printed. A few years since 
Dr. A. G. Haygood. General Agent Slater Fund, told us that if the 
citizens of Chester would furnish us the funds to put up a workshop 
worth $250 he would give us a like amount for tools. We obtained 
nearly that much in money and our pupils, with my help, nearly com- 
pleted the building, 20x40, 1+ stories. It is probably worth $400 or 
$500. We have had no regular course of training, 1 being the only 
one to attend to it and having but little time to be used that way. 
But we have done our repairing, seated our old chapel, made tables, 
benches and desks. Now we have live of the young men at work on 
our new building. But for our workshop it would have been almost 
out of our power to have done the work we are now doing. 

One of our young men, studying for the ministry, went into a desti- 
tute part during his vacation, and organized what help he could com- 
mand and built a school house and later a church, and this without 
asking for much, if any, outside help. 

Two of our present workers go out several miles each Sunday and 
teach a Sunday school. Wanting a bookcase, one of them made a 
nice one and painted it, doing the work out of hours, and gave it to 
them. I think some of the others may have helped him a little, as he 
had but little time to spare each day. 

Our aim is to teach them so that they may repair or improve their 
homes, or construct new ones. * ^ * ^ % * 

Respectfully, 

(Signed) H. A. Green, 

Professor Industrial Department 



Industkial Education Commission. 37y 



XXI. TENNESSEE. 

1. The University of Tennessee. 

^•The University of Tennessee "is one ol the institutions receiving 
the benefit of the congressional act of 18G2. 

The departments of instruction comprise the following: 

A. AcADEMtc Department. 
At Knoxville. 

I. The College of Agriculture, Mechani: Arts and Sciences, with 
the following courses of study : 

{a) General science course. 
(h) Latin science course. 

(c) Course in agriculture. 

(d) Course in civil engineering. 

{e) Course in mechanical engineering. 

(/) Course in chemistry. 

{g) Course in mining engineering. 

II. University, or Postgraduate Department. 

1. With courses for the giaduate degrees of M. A., M. S., and 

Ph. D. 

2. With professional course leading to degree C. E., Min. E. 

and Mech. E. 

B. Professional Department. 

At Nashville. 

(1) A course in medicine, leading to the degree of M. D., and 

(2) A course in dentistry, leading to the degree of D. D. S. 

The candidate for admission must be fifteen years of age. A good 
knowledge of arithmetic, English grammar and composition, geogra- 
phy and United States history is required for admission to the lowest 
class. 

r 

For Each Half Session or Term of Twenty Weeks. 

Tuition, in all departments (State cadets are free), $20 00 

Registration fee (State cadets are free), 10 00 

Incidental, $6.00; room rent, $3.00, and library, $1.00 (paid by 

all), 10 00 

Infirmary fee (which secures medical attention, medicine and 
nursing free, paid by all), except students whose parents 

reside here 2 50 

Deposit (returned if no damage i^ done), 2 50 

Making a total, for State cadets, of $15.00; for other students of, $:15 00 



380 Keport of the 

From the opening of the new mechanical department, p>tudents 
working therein must pay a fee of $5.00 per half session for material 
wear and tear of tools and power supplied. 

A course in mechanical engineering, beginning in the Freshman 
year, and extending through four years, in drawing and mechanics, 
with practice in wood- working, joining, turning, patternmaking, vise- 
work, pjwer-machine work and designing, has just been established. 

Advanced or Postgraduate Work. 

Students having completed the regular course in mechanical engi- 
neering, and wishing to thoroughly investigate some special branch of 
enginee-ring, will be afforded instruction in the design and detail con- 
struction of compound steam engines (of double, treble and quadruple 
cylinder types) ; of high class pumping engines; of various types of 
hydraulic machinery in detail, such as cotton compress machinery, 
hydraulic cranes and hydraulic riveting and boiler plate flanging 
machinery; the thorough investigation of the latest developments in 
railway machinery, particularly the locomotive; in the design and 
theoretical investigation of the two systems of air compressing (wet 
and dry) for mining purposes; in mining machinery for coal, iron, 
copper, silver and gold mining ; in machinery for refining the precious 
metal, and in appliances for smelting and reducing the baser met:als. 

In such postgraduate work the aim is not merely to teach abstract 
principles but to give such instruction by lectures and the working out 
of designs as will enable the student to have a thoroughly practical 
understanding of the subject investigated. 

A special building for the mechanical school has been erected and 
equipped. It contains the following apartments : 

First Floor — Boiler and forge shop in a one-story wing; two large 
machine shops, tool room, office and wash room in the main building. 

Secojtd Floor. — Two large wood-working and patternmaking shops, 
office, tool and store-room. 

Third Floor. — Two drawing-rooms, with windows and skylights, 
laboratory and instrument room, blue-print room and recitation room. 

The building is equipped with boiler, engine, forges, hand and 
power wood working and machine tools, apparatus, models, etc. 

All scientific and engineering students are required to take a course 
in mechanical drawing and shop work. Students in the mechanical, civil 
and mining engineering courses and the chemical course have a longer 
course in drafting and in forge and machine shop work. Even in the 
literary departments, where it is more difficult, this plan of instruction 
will be followed to a considerable degree. The general plan is to give 
every student in every class and course a minimum of six hours a 
week, in periods of one and a half and two hours each of laboratory, 
shop, farm, surveying, drafting or other practice work. To this an 



Industrial Education Commission 381 

average of four hours a week of military drill is to be added, making 
a total average of two hours per day for five days in the week of what 
is broadly called '* practical exercises." 

Students in the advanced classes and taking special or postgraduate 
courses may do, of course, much more than this amount of drafting, 
laboratory or shop work. All students who desire it are given oppor- 
tunities and encouraged in every way to do as much practical work as 
possible. 



382 Report of the 



XXII. TEXAS. 

1 The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 

The "Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas" is also one oi 
the institutions receiving the benefit of the congressional act of 1S62. 

The college was formally opened for the reception of students Octo- 
ber 4, 187o. 

There are two regular courses of study and practice leading to de- 
grees and extendiug through four years each. They are identical for 
the first year, thus giving the student the advantage of elementary 
training in subjects that are of equal importance to every one and 
affording opportunity for intelligent choice between the courses as 
continued separately through the three succeeding years. In the last 
year, or first class, there is a still further specialization by which the 
student may, in the agricultural course, vary his studies with refer- 
ence to obtaining either of two degrees, that is, bachelor of science (B. 
8.) or bachelor of scientific agriculture (B. S. A ), In the mechanical 
coarse a similar specialization is provided for by which the student is 
given the choice between the degrees of bachelor of civil engineering 
(B. C. E.) and bachelor of mechanical engineering (B. M. E.). 

All regular students must pursue either the agricultural or the me- 
chanical course, and there is no course of instruction which is not 
industrial. 

Admission 

To enter the college an applicant must be in his sixteenth year or 
at least must have attained a degree of physical and mental advance- 
ment corresponding to that age. 

The mental attainments necessary for entering upon the courses of 
study comprise a fair knowledge of arithmetic as far as proportion of 
descriptive geography and of elementary English grammar and com- 
position. 

Tuition is free. The total expense for the year of nine months is 
$150. 

In addition tothe above a charge of five dollars is made to cover 
possible damage to the college property, and the cost of chemicals and 
other materials used by the students. 

The mechanical course in detail is as follows: 

First Year — Fourth Class. 
{Figures indicate hours 2^cr week.) 

FALL, TERM. 

Mathematics, 5 ; Englisli, 5; Stock Lectures, 3 ; Horticulture, 2 ; Shop, 4 ; Draw- 
ing, 4 ; Drill, 5. 



Industrial Education Co3imission. 3^o 



WINTER TERM. 



Mathematics, 5; English, 5; , 1; Stock Lectures, 1; Agricultur-e, I; Zoo- 
logy, 3 ; Shop, 4 ; Drawing, 4. 

SPRING TERM, 

Mathematics, 5 ; English, 5 ; Botany, 4 ; Agriculture, 1 ; Practice, 6 ; Drill, 3 ; Draw- 
ing, 2. 

Second Year — Third Class. 
fall term. 
Mathematics, 5 ; Mechanics, 4 ; English, 4 ; Physics, 3 ; Practice, 4 ; Drawing, 4 ; 
Drill, 5. 

SPRING TERM. 

Mathematics, 5 ; Mechanics, 5 ; English, 4 ; Physics, 3 ; Practice, 4 ; Drawing, 4. 

WINTER TERM. 

Mathematics, 5 ; Mechanics, 5 ; English, 4 ; Physics, 3 ; Drill, 3 ; Practice, 4 ; Draw- 
ing, 4. 

Third Year— Second Class. 

fall term. 

Mathematics, 5 ; Chemistry, 4; Mechanics, 2; Engineering, 2; English, 2; lan- 
guages, 2 ; Drill, 3 ; Practice, 6 ; Drawing, 4. 

WINTER TERM. 

Mathematics, 5 ; Chemistry, 4 ; Mechanics, 2 ; English, 2 ; Engineering, 2 ; Lan- 
guages, 2 ; Tactics, 2 ; Practice, 6 ; Drawing, 4. 

SPRING TERM. 

Mathematics, 5 ; Mechanics, 2 ; Chemistry, 4 ; Surveying, 2 ; English, 2 ; Lan- 
guages, 2 ; Drill, 3 ; Practice, 6 ; Drawing, 4. 

Fourth Year— First Class. 

{For the Degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering.) 

FALL TERM. 

Mathematics, 4 ; Mechanics, 5 ; Geology, 2 ; Languages, 3 ; Drill, 3 ; English, 2 ; 
Practice, 6 ; Drawing, 4. 

WINTER TERM. 

Mathematics, 5 ; Geology, 2 ; English, 2 ; Mechanical Engineering, 5 ; Languages- 
2 ; Military Science, 1 ; Practice, 6 ; Drawing, 4. 

SPRING TERM. 

Mathematics, 3; Mechanical Engineering, 4; English, 1 ; Astronomy, 2, Lan- 
guages, 3 ; Physiology, 2 ; Gov. Science, 2 ; Practice, 7 ; Drawing, 3 ; Drill, 3 ; Grad- 
uation Thesis. 

'' The department of mechanical engineering is intended so as to 
combine theory and practice that, after deriving a theoretical knowl- 
edge of a subject from the text books of standard writers, the student 
may go into the shop and apply that know^ledge in a thoroughly 
practical manner. With this theoretical preparation the mind grasps 
the salient points and avoids the ditliculties of th^ more practical part 
of the work. The wojk is carried on by the aid of practice in the 
shops and drawing room, and by text books and lectures. 



384 Kepoet of the 

" First the machinery of transmission is taken up and discussed, and 
especial attention paid to shafting, belts, speed pulleys, gear wheels 
and kindred subjects. These lead the way to the higher forms of 
mechanism, and later the steam engine in its general principles and 
various forms is studied and discussed. 

" As stated above, the work in the class room is supplemented in 
every possible way by showing the student the practical application 
of these principles in the machinery used at the college and neigh- 
boring places. 

'' Before graduating from this department, each student must place 
in the hands of the professor in charge, a thesis which treats of some 
mechanical subject, and which shall be declared satisfactory by him. 

Shops ai^d Shop Work. 

" The carpenter shop is situated in a two-story frame building 83x34 
feet. Here each student has his own set of tools to care for, use and 
keep in order. The machine shop is a one-story brick building 80x35 
feet, and in connection with it is the blacksmith shop 20x35 feet. 

" Here the student receives practical and systematic instruction, be- 
ginning with the simplest exercises and gradually w^orking up to those 
of a more difficult character which involve greater skill. Each of 
these when finished must reach a certain standard of perfection 
before the learner can pass on to the next, thus insuring a knowledge 
of the principles by which the work is accomplished. The wood 
working depatrment is subject to the same requirements, and here, 
as in iron working, the first exercises are of the simplest character, 
while the latter ones demand increased skill on the part of the 
workman." 



Industrial. Education Commission. bSb 



XXIII. VIRGINIA. 

1. The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. 

Professor Jas. H. Fitts gives the following report of mechanical 
work in this institution, founded on the land-grant act of 1862 : 

'' Blacksburg, Va., Octoher ^, 1888. 

''Systematic instruction in drawing and the use of wood-working 
tools has been given for two years, in the use of iron- working tools 
for one year. The method adopted is the same as that in use in the 
St. Louis Manual Training School, the Miller Manual Labor School and 
others. The course runs through three years, and averages six hours 
of w^ork per week. 

''Our shops are fairly well fitted out with machine and hand tools, 
but we have no foundry as yet. The department is in charge of the 
professor of mechanics, with tw^o assistants, instructors in wood work 
and iron work. 

" In so short a time, we cannot look for great results. Students have, 
from the beginning, shown much interest in their work, and this in- 
terest is on the increase. At the State fair last year, a suite of bed- 
room furniture was exhibited which took first premium. This year 
exhibit is made of both iron and wood work, as well as working 
drawings, at the Richmond exposition. 

" The public at large knows little of our work, but since a start has 
been made in the right direction, our board of visitors have been as 
liberal in making appropriations for the department as the limited 
means at their disposal allows, thereby showing their confidence in 
its success." 

President Lomax, in transmitting the foregoing report and speak- 
ing generally of the work of the department, says : 

'•lam glad to state, I feel much encouraged. The students who 
have passed through the shop work, find no difficulty in getting em- 
ployment in the Roanoke machine works, and other shops. This has 
been a great incentive to them. Our board appropriates $1,000 per 
year for new machinery; and we hope to soon have a complete shop." 

2. The "Miller Manual Labor School." 

"The Miller Manual Labor School of Albemarle" was founded by 
Samuel Miller, of Albemarle, Virginia, for the purpose, as stated in his 
will, of establishing a place "wherein, at all times, there shall be fed, 
clothed and instructed in all the branches of a good, plain, sound 
English education, the various languages, both ancient and modern, 
25 Ed. Com. 



386 Kepoet of the 

agriculture, and the useful arts, and wholly free of expense to the 
pupils, as many poor orphan children and other white children whose 
parents shall be unable to educate them (the said orphans and other 
children being residents of the said county of Albemarle), as the 
profits and income of the funds herein devised and bequeathed will 
admit of." 

In accordance with this bequest, on the death of Mr. Miller in 1869, 
the executor turned over to the *' Miller fund," as denominated in the 
will, stocks and bonds amounting to over one million of dollars, the 
income and profits of which were for the establishment and perpetual 
support of the Miller Manual Labor School. 

This fund is held in trust by the board of education of Virginia. 

The school is managed and controlled through the agency of the 
countj^ court of Albemarle. The court appoints "" annually, two in- 
telligent, respectable, and well-educited gentlemen," whose duty it 
is to select and employ, whenever necessary, competent and suitable 
teachers for the school (subject to the approval of the county court), 
and to visit the school quarterly, examine into its condition minutely, 
and make written report thereof to the court. 

'' The district school trustees of the respective districts of the county 
of Albemarle, select and designate the children of the county who 
come under the requirements of Mr. Miller's will for admission into 
the school. From this list, made and revised by the school trustees 
every six months, the court appoints the pupils of the school. It is 
to be noted that only children who are residents of the county of 
Albemarle can be appointed to the school. Moreover, they must be 
selected as coming under the requirements of Mr. Miller's will by the 
school board of the district in which they reside before the court can 
appoint them to the school. These pupils when appointed to the 
school are clothed, fed, taught and cared for wholly at the expense of 
the school. In October, 1878, the first pupils were admitted into the 
school. The school began with twenty pupils It was then quite 
difficult to find children whose friends were willin.2: to have them ap- 
pointed to the school." 

In accordance with an order of the court in August, 1884, a depart- 
ment for the instruction of girls was organized under the authority 
and control of the superintendent. Under this order the first girls 
were admitted in JNovember, 1884. 

Conditions for the Admission of Pupils 

1st. Each pupil shall be fed, clothed, instructed and cared for in ac- 
cordance with the provisions of Mr. Miller's will. 2d. They shall be 
governed and controlled by the superintendent exclusively, assisted 
by the other officers of the school, in accordance with such laws and 
regulations as may be adopted by the board of visitors and approved 
by the county court. 3d. They shall lemain at the school subject to 



Industrial Education Commission. 



387 



its laws and regulations during the time that shall be determined by 
the district board of school trustees, unless dismissed in accordance 
with the laws and regulations of the school. 4th. The parents, or 
guardians, shall, upon their entrance in the school, relinquish all right 
or claim to control or govern them during the time that they shall be 
required, in accordance with the above conditions, to remain at the 
school. 5th. They are appointed by the county court, subject to the 
condition that they shall not remain at the school after they are eigh- 
teen years old, save in case of unusual merit, when an exception may 
be made upon the recommendation of the officers of the school and 
the board of visitors. 

''July. 1st, 1888, there were 212 pupils, the largest enrolment at any 
one time. 

'■^Primary Department. — In this clepaitment, the pupils are taught reading, writ- 
ing, intermediate arithmetic and primary geograpliy. Under the conditions of Mr_ 
Miller's will, no entrance examination is required. Hence many must begin at the 
lowest point. Very few are able to enter abov^e the primary department. 

'•'• Higher Department. — This department is di%'ided into six classes, to each of 
which is given one year. The studies in these six classes are as follows, viz : 



Sixth Class, 


Arithmetic. 


English. 


History. 


Geograp'y. 


House and Farm 
Work. 


Fifth Class. 


Arithmetic.; 


English. 


History. 


Geograp'y. 


Printin g and 
Farm Work. 


Fourth Class. 


Algebra. 


English. 


Latin. 


Botany & 
Physiol'y. 


Farm Work and 
Shop Practice. 


Third Class. 


Geometry, 
Algebra. 


English. 


Latin. 


Chemist'y. 


Drawing and 
Shop Practice. 


Second Class. 


Algebra, 
Geometry. 


Physics. 


Latin and 
German. 


Geology, 
Mineral' y. 


Drawing and 
Shop Practice. 


First Class. 


Trigonometry. 


Mechanics. 


Latin and 
German. 


Botany, 
Entomo'y. 


D r a w i n g and 
Shop Practice. 



'' After completing intermediate arithmetic in the primary depart- 
ment, the pupils are given a careful and thorough course in arithme- 
lic, algebra, geometry, and plane and spherical trigonometry. They 
also are given some instruction in conies. This course, taken in con- 
nection with their book-keeping, drawing, mechanics, physics, and 
shop practice, gives them a most substantial mathematical foundation 
upon which to build. 

" Shop Work. 
" In the department of practical mechanics instruction is given by 
the director, aided by an instructor in wood, one in iron, one in forging 



3S8 Report op the 

and foundry work, and one in drawing. To complete the course takes 
four years, one in woodwork, one in forj2:ing and foundry work, one in 
iron work, and the last year in advanced work in one of these three 
departments. Fifteen hours per wtek is devoted to shop work through 
the entire time. Drawing is taught thoroughout the four years for 
seven and a half hours per week, and in each year is allied to the 
branch of shop work that; the pupil is taking. The first year is taken 
by the boys in the fourth class of the regular school course (the first 
class being the graduating class). Here they learn by a systematic 
course of exercises the use of the various hand tools and appliances 
used for wood work, the principles of a variety of joints ustd in con- 
struction, and how to make them. They also become familiar with 
the lathe and its tools and wood working machines generally, such as 
are used in carpentry and cabinet work and patternmaking. At the 
end of the year they are able to make articles of furniture, such as 
washstands, tables, etc. 

" The second year in this department is taken by the boys of the 
third class. Here they are trained in forging and foundry work. They 
learn first in forging the use of tools on lead instead of on hot ironi 
which greatly facilitates the work ot a beginner. It is not long be- 
fore they can handle iron ilself with a measure of skill. In foundry 
work, they also commence with alloys, etc., before molding iron^ 
though they later learn to charge and manage the cupola and to do a 
fair variety of molding. 

'' The third year is taken by the boys of the second class in the ma- 
chine shop, where they first learn the use of the tools, etc., by regular 
exercises. Before the end of the year they are able to construct dif- 
ferent mechanisms, etc., of a creditable character. 

•'In the fourth year, having previously gone through all the depart- 
ments, the student is required to make a specialty of one of them, and 
follow up advanced work in it. 

"Drawing, as previously mentioned, is taught throughout the four 
years, and each year bears an intimate relation to that years shop 
practice. It is begun with very simple free-hand drawing, and later 
on the use of instruments is gradually acquired. The drawing is 
never from plates, but from objects, either real or imaginary. 

" In addition to this regular course in shop practice, etc., a time is 
set aside in each department for regular instruction of a more special 
character for those boys who, on account of advanced age or other 
cause, will be unable to graduate. 

''The instruction in physics, mechanics, and electricity, is also given 
in this department. The course in physics is interesting, thorough, 
and decidedly practical, being well illustrated throughout by careful 
experiments. In mechanics, which is made (as it should be) to bear 
a close relation to manual training, shop practice, etc., the pupils are 
taught the principles, etc., involved in the various operations the}^ 



INDUSTRIAL Education Commission. 389 

are taught to perform. Electricity is taught in direct connection with 
1 he dynamos, storage batteries, regulators, resistance boxes, etc., of the 
electric light plant, aided by a collection of electrical apparatus, and 
the pupils are required to become sufficiently familiar with them to 
manage them intelligently, and to make dynamos, motors, convert- 
ers, etc." 



390 Report of the 



XXIV. WISCONSIN. 

1. "The University of Wisconsin." 

" The Univrersity of Wisconsin " receives the benefit of the act of 
Congress of 1862. 

It embraces : 

I. The College of Arts. 
11. The College of Letters. 

III. The College or Law. 

The College of Arts embraces the general science course and the 
special science course preliminary to the study of medicine, together 
with the technical departments of agriculture, of civil, mechanical, 
mining and metallurgical engineering, and of pharmacy. 

The College of Letters embraces the ancient classical course, the 
modern classical course, the English course, the special course pre- 
liminary to the study of law and journalism, and the special courses 
for normal school graduates. 

Admission. 

All candidates for admission to the collegiate, engineering and 
special courses are examined upon the following studies: English? 
mathematics, arithmetic, algebra, through quadratics and plane geom- 
etry, Geography^ civil, political and physical, history of the United 
States. 

In addition to the above, the requirements for admission to the 
mechanical engineering course are the following: 

Natural philosophy, physiology, botany, solid geometry and Ger- 
man (the equivalent of Sheldon's Short German course and twenty 
lessons in any standard German reader). 

For the German required an equivalent amount of French may be 
substituted. If French is thus substituted, it is a required study 
through the freshman year instead of German, which is otherwise re- 
quired. 

Admission is also granted upon accredited certificates. 

Fees. 

Tuition for residents of the State of Wisconsin is free ; for non-resi- 
dents, per term, $6. 

Students working in the laboratories are required to make deposits 
of from $5 to $30, to cover the cost of instruments and materials used 
by them. An account of the same is kept and the amount of the 
deposit not used is returned to the student at the close of his term of 
study in the laboratory. 



Industrial Education Commission. c9i 

Course in Mechanical Ekgineering. 

Freshman Year. 

Fall Term. 

Mathematics, higher algebra. 

German, reader. 

French, elementary. 

Draughting, elementary, five hours weekly. 

Practical Mechanics, ten hours shop work weekly. 

Winter Term. 

Mathematics, theory of equations, graphic algebra, determinants. 

German, reader, or, 

French, elementary. 

Rhetoric, practical. 

Drawf^/ii^iwg', elementary, fiv^e hours a \veek. 

Spring Term. 
Mathematics, trigonometry, descriptive geometry. 
German, scientific reader, or, 
French, elementary. 
Di aughting, descriptive geometry problems, five hours a week. 

Essays, declamations and elocution, twice weekly throughout the year. 
Military drill in fall and spring terms. Military tactics (optional) in the winter 
term. 

SopJiomore Year. 

Fall Term. 

Mathematics, analytical geometry, descriptive geometry. 

Mechanics, elementary. 

Chemistry, lecture and laboratory practice. 

Draughting, descriptive geometry problems, ten hours a week. 

Winter Term. 

Mathematics, differential calculus. 

Engineering, machine construction. 

Physics, experimental lectures. 

Chemistry, inorganic analysis. 

Draughting, elements of machines, eight hours a week. 

Practical Mechanics, five hours shop work a week. 

Spring Ter3I. 
Mathematics, integral calculus. 
Engineering, machine construction. 
Physics, experimental lectures. 
Chemistry, inorganic analysis. 

Draughting, elements of machines, eight hours a week. 
Practical Mechanics, five hours shop work a week. 

Essays, declamations and elocution, weekly, throughout the year. 

Military drill in fall and spring terms. Military tactics (optional) in the winter 
term. 

Junior Year. 

Fall Term. 

Engineering, machine construction. 

Mechanics, analytical. 

Physics, electricity and magnetism. 

Draughting, ten hours a week. 

Practical Mechanics, ten hours shop w^ork a week. 



392 R POBT OF THE 

Winter Term. 

Mechanics, analytical, graphic statics. 

Applied Mechanics, thermodynamics. 

Draughting, problems in graphic statics, ten hours a week. 

Practical Mechanics, five hours shop , ork a week. 

Spring Term. 

Engineering, theory of steam engine. 
Mechanics, mechanics o materials. 
Dr alighting, hois ng nchine , ten hours a week. 
Practical Mechanics, ten ours shop ork a week. 

Five essays and on oration required during the year. 

Senior Year, 

Fall, Term. 

Engineering, construction of steam engine. 
Metallurgy, fuel, iron and steel. 

Draughting, pumps, steam engine, ten hours a week. 
Practical Mechanics, ten hours shop work a week. 

Winter Term. 

Engineering, hydraulic motors. 
Mechanics, mechanics of machinery. 
Astronomy, practical (elective). 
Draughting, steam engine, ten hours a week. 
Practical Mechanics, ten hours shop work a week. 

Spring Term. 

Mechanics, raec^?nics of machinery. 

Astronomy, practical (elective). 

Draughting, steam engine and thesis, fifteen hours a week. 

Practical Mechanics, ten hours shop work a week. 

Three essays and one thesis required during the year. 

A thesis is required for graduation, which must be submitted to the Professor of 
rhetoric as well as to the professor of mechanical engineering. 

In elementary mechanics the aim is to impart clear notions of the 
elementary principles of mechanics, as a preparation for the study of 
physics, or the more advanced work in analytical mechanics. Correct 
notions of fundamental principles and of the language of the science 
are regarded as of greater importance than facility in the solution of 
problems by rule or formula. 

During the fall term, junior year, the work in analytical mechanics 
covers the main principles of the subject of statics. The work of the 
winter term deals mainly with the kinematics and dynamics of a par- 
ticle, the principles of work and energy, and moments of inertia. In 
this course it is possible to develop only the beginnings of the science 
of analytical mechanics, but sufficient ground is covered to give the 
student of engineering a foundation for all ordinary technical appli- 
cations of mechanics, and to furnish to those whose tastes lead them 
in that direction, a ground work for future study of the more ad- 
vanced theoretical portions of the subject. 

The study of graphic statics is taught by lectures. The graphical 
method of determining strains and moments is first applied to framed 



Industrial Education Commission. 393 

structures, especially roof trusses, considering; both (he dead load and 
the wind pressure. The method is then applied lo various pieces of 
machiner}', especially the determination of the dimensions of shafts, 
axles, cranks, etc. The work in the recitation room is here largely 
supplemented by the work in the drau.iihting-room. 

The problems studied in the class-room are worked out in the 
draughting room with great accuracy, and the different pieces of ma- 
chinery are drawn in detail. 

Mechanics of materials embraces both theory and practice. The 
resistance and elastic properties of the most important of the materials 
of engineering are studied from a theoretical standpoint, and students 
are familiarized with these properties by tests made in the laboratory. 
The testing laboratory has been equipped with a Tinius Olsen & Co.'s 
testing machine of 50,000 pounds capacity, with tensile, compressive 
and transverse testing tools, those for transverse testing being capable 
of breaking full-sized pieces up to thirty feet in length, and with a 
Riehle Brothers cement (ester. 

Mechanics of machinery embraces the kinetics and kinematics of 
the different machines, and is essentially the mechanics of con- 
strained motion. The subject is first treated in a general way, then 
numerous examples are taken from special machines, that the study 
may be of practical value to the student. 

Thermodynamics covers those principle 3 of the mechanical theory 
of heat which are a necessary preliminary to the study of the theory 
of heat engines. 

The lectures given on machine construction furnished the necessary 
rules and formulas for calculating and designing the various elements 
of which machines are made up. Beginning with the immovable 
parts like the rivet, the screw and the key, tJie course passes on to 
the movable parts, like the journal, the shaft, toothed gearing, pul- 
leys, etc. The course is very complete, the theoretical as well as the 
practical elements being duly considered. 

The study of the steam engine extends through two terms. It is 
taught^ by lectures exclusively during the spring term, the theory of 
the steam engine and of the boiler being then especially considered. 
Practical, yet scientifically correct, formulas for calculating the prin- 
cipal dimensions are given. During the fall term the subject is 
taught partly by lectures, partly by recitations. The steam engine is 
then considered more from the practical side. In connection with 
this study the students will, together with the professor, take part in 
a thorough test of some steam engine and of the boiler furnishing the 
steam. The department will very shortly be fully equipped for con- 
ducting these expeiiments. 

The study of hydraulic m.otors is taught principally by recitations. 
The general subject of hydraulics is first taken up, in which the flow 
of water through orifices, pipes, canals, over wires, etc., is determined, 



394 Keport of the 

and the experimental coefficients are discussed. After this, the hy- 
draulic motors, especially the turbines, are treated in a systematic 
way. A short discussion of pumps finishes the study. It is the in- 
tention to have the students carry out hydraulic experiments in the 
new laboratory which is being fitted up. 

Drawing. 

In elementary drawing the student is first taught the use of the 
brush in tinting various plane and curved surfaces with India ink. Ho 
then learns the well-known system of round writing and the various 
kinds of lettering. The remainder of the time is spent by students 
in mechanical engineering, in making a number of tracings of details 
of machines, and by the students in civil, mining and metallurgical 
engineering in topographical draughting with pen and colors. 

The instr action in the draughting room follows closely the class 
room work in descriptive geometry, and comprises a large number of 
problems relating to the different phases of the work. Most oT the 
problems are not found in the text-book and the student must there- 
fore solve them independently. Great stress is laid on the accuracy 
of the drawings, as well as on the character of the line work, as this 
study furnishes the best trcuning for a future draughtsman. 

In the course in elements of machines working drawings, mostly full 
size, are made of various elements of machines, as pillow blocks, 
hangers, couplings, the various kinds of toothed gearing, spur, bevel 
and worm wheels, pulleys, etc. These details of machines are, to a 
great extent, designed by the student himself. The drawings are 
made in every particular, so as to serve as working drawings in a fac- 
tory. For the sake of gaining practice they are required to be tinted 
in the various conventional colors. The dimensions of the various 
parts are calculated. Eight hours a week during the winter and spring 
terms of the sophomore year, and ten hours a week during the fall 
term of the junior year. 

The course in machine construction embraces the designing and 
draughting of machinery, and is supplemental to the work in the class- 
room and the workshop. At present, one term and a half are spent 
in designing some kind of lifting machinery. The remainder of the 
term is occupied with the design of an automatic cut off steam en- 
gine. Besides the general plan and an elevation of the machine de- 
signed, working drawings of the details of the various parts are re- 
quired. During the fall term of the senior year the students are also 
required to design some kind of model which they are to make in the 
machine shop before graduation. 

Practical Mechanics. —MANUAii Training. 

With the ample accommodations afforded by the new buildings, the instruction 
in all branches of this department is made thoroughly systematic and practical. 
The instruction and practice in the shops are given in classes and examinations are 



Industrial Education Coimmission. 3h5 

held at the end of each term. All students of mechanical engineering are required 
to give 940 hours tiine to shop practice during the four years of the course. 

Bench Work in Wood.--A. systematic course in the use of the plane, saw, gouge, 
bit and similar tools. It embraces such joint work as is involved in building con- 
structions and furniture. A short lecture precedes each new operation. First part 
of fall term, two hours per day, 50 hours. 
{Required of all Freshmen in Engineering.) 

Machine Work in Wood. — Systematic training in the use of the gouge and chisel 
in plane and ornamental turning, in hard and soft wood. Middle of fall term, two 
hours per day, 50 hours. 
{^Required of all Freshmen in Engineering.) 

Pattern Work and Molding. — Practice in making patterns and in molding. The 
selections of patterns are made with reference to best illustrating the principles in- 
volved in pattern construction and in the operations of molding. Last part of fall 
term, two hours per day, 50 hours. 
{Required of all Freshmen in Engineering.) 

Hand W^ork in Iron. — A systematic course in iron work with the hammer, chisel 
and file at the vise. Winter term, five hours weekly, 60 hours. 
{Required of all Sophomores in Mechanical Engineering.) 

Surface Plate Work toith File and /L^crrtj^er.— Systematic training in producing 
flat surfaces ana lines of precision with the file and scraper. Spring term, five hours 
weekly, 55 hours. 
{Required of all Sophomores in Mechanical Engineering.) 

Forge Work. — Training in all the fundamental features of forge work, as drawing, 
upsetting, bending, welding, tempering and tool making. Fall term, five hours 
weekly, 60 hours. 
{Reqxdred of all Juniors in Mechanical Engineering.) 

Machine Work in Iron. — Practice on the engine lathes, in connection with whicli 
are taught the elementary features of boring, turning and screw-cutting. Fall term, 
ten hours weekly, 90 hours. 

Tool Making. — The methods of tap and die making for cutting screw threads are 
the leading features. Some instruction in brass work is also given. Winter term 
five hours weekly, 60 hours. 
{Required of all Juniors in Mechanical Engineering.) 

Machine Constr action. — Practice in the manufacture of machinery, involving cal- 
culations of the cost of their production. Spring term, ten hours weekly, 110 hours. 
{Required of all Juniors in Mechanical Engineering.) 

The work of this course for the seniors in mechanical engineering is similar to 
that of the preceding but includes the use of plane-surfacing machines, and requires 
the highest skill of the student in fitting, etc. Fall term, ten hours weekly, 150 
hours. 

Model Designing and Construction. — Practice in the designing and the construc- 
tion of models, in connection with which training self-dependence is given. The 
responsibility is imposed upon the student of designing some piece of machinery 
which is illustrative of the principles previously taught, and requires pattern- work, 
melding, forging and machine work. Winter term, ten hours weekly, 120 hours. 
{Required of all Seniors in Mechanical Engineering.) 

Model Construction and Testing. — The work in this course is devoted to complet- 
ing and perfecting the models, and to such tests and experiments with them as will 
demonstrate the principles involved in them and develop their excellencies and 
defects. The field of invention is open to the student in this and the preceding 
course. Spring terni, ten hours weekly, 85 hours. 
{Required of all Seniors in Mechanical Engineering.) 

The engineering departments occupy the first floor and basement on the north 
side of the new science hall. 

The basement rooms of the engineering department consist of an engineering lab- 
oratory, an engineering museum, a reading room and one recitation room. In the 
laboratory are to be found a testing machine made by Tinius Olsen & Co., of 50,000 
pounds capacity, and fitted with tools for tensile, compressive, torsional and trans- 



396 Report of the 

verse strains; a cement testing apparatus, made by Riehle Bros., of 1,000 pounds 
capacity, with the necessary clamps and apparatus for measurhig and molding ; 
high and low level tanks of large capacity, fitted for experimenting on and determ- 
ining the flow of water through orifices and pipes, and over weirs. There is also a 
row of steam coils arranged to test and compare the value of different forms of steam 
pipe covering; a ten-horse power vertical steam engine supplies power in the labo- 
ratory, and is so arranged that it can be run for experimental purposes as a high or 
low pressure engine, and also at various speeds. There are also frction brakes of 
large and small capacity, and two transmitting dynamometers which furnish the 
means for carrying out a great variety of tests. The laborator}^ closely joins the 
boiler house, and connections will be so made with the boilers that a constant record 
of their performance can be kept. In addition, the laboratory is being supplied with 
the necessary tanks, weighing apparatus, pyrometers, calorimeter, etc., for making 
complete tests of the economy and capacity of the boilers. 

There are also a ten-horsepower experimental turbine wheel and a small dynamo- 
electric machine, which have been made by students. 

The engineering musuem will contain a collection of specimens of all the various 
engineering materials, including selected test specimens ; also a considerable num- 
ber of models of roof and bridge truses will be gradually added, made hy the stu- 
dents from their own designs. 

On the first floor the largest room is the main draughting room, which contains 
desks for eighty students. Distributed throughout the room in cases is a very large 
and varied collection of general working and detailed drawings of a great variety of 
engineering structures and machines, which illustrate the latest and best principles. 
There is also a collection of models, illustrating problems in descriptive geometry 
and in stone cutting. 

The lecture rooms are fitted with cases containing a good collection of drawings or 
typical structures and machines, and numerous models for the illnstration of me- 
chanical motions, etc. 

Machine Shop. 
The machine shop is new and affords excellent facilities for mechanical practice. 
It embraces a main macnine room 78X41 feet, equipped with five engine lathes, a 
polishing lathe, a 24' wood lathe, a grinding lathe, a shaper, a planer, a milling 
machine and two drilling machines ; a room for smaller machines, 32X30 feet, fur- 
nished witli an engine lathe, a milling machine, a polishing lathe, a drill ; a carpenter 
shop 44X39 feet, supplied with a planer, two saws, a shaper, a sticker, a mortising 
machine, a tenoning machine and a scroll saw; a forge room 24X36 feet, provided 
with ten forges and their equipments, supplied with a Sturtevant blower for the 
blast and an exhaust fan for ventilation ; a foundry room of the same size whose 
equipment will consist of a cupola, biyss furnace and core oven, with the necessarj'- 
small tools ; a wood work room 45X44 § feet, supplied with benches, carpenter tools, 
an'd wood turning lathes sufficient for the accommodation of twenty-foar studenis 
and a pattern room 30X32 feet, furnished with the requisite tools. 

2. Sparta Public Schools. 

Sparta, Wis., Saptemher^S, 1SS8. 
George W. Atherton, LL. D., State College^ Pa.: 

Dear Sir: ^ * ^ In response to your inquiries relativ^e to docu- 
ments regarding manual training, I would say that we have none, as 
our board have taken no direct action in the matter. But I. as super- 
intendent, have introduced a sort of a system which seems to be the 
best we can do under the circumstances. It was an outgrowth of our 
drawing. A few j^ears ago after we had introduced Prang's system 
of drawing or rather the constructive and representative part of it, it 
occurred to me that it would be an excellent plan to encourage our 



Industrial Education Oommi^sio-^. 397 

pupils to take working drawings home and make articles there ac- 
cording to the draining. We did so supposing that we were the first 
to engage in it, but found to our surprise that other schools in Ohio, 
Massachusetts, etc., were doing the same about that time. We added 
to the home work until all grades had somsthing to do. The home 
work Y\^as optional. In addition to this we had an exhibition of any- 
thing pupils cared to make at home, the girls doing all kinds of 
handiwork, sewing, cooking, etc., the bo3'S work in wood and iron. 
Our first exhibition was a revelation to our patrons. We only claimed 
for our scheme that it was a stimulus to our pupils to induce them to 
use their hands and brains outside of school, to develop much of the 
mechanical ingenuity which lies latent in every mind. We further 
claimed that when the parents saw their children interested in some 
efi'ort to construct things, they would endeavor to aid them, by their 
advice and procure tools for them as fast as they saw that the children 
desired them. Then we thought also that such a system persevered 
in for years would tend to develop much of the latent mechanical 
ingenuity of children before they were fifteen years old, so that we 
could tell clearly whether a child possessed any aptitude toward any 
mechanical trade or not. 

We f ither reasoned that the ordinary system of manual training 
which fits up a shop for high school pupils and does not provide some 
work for the pupils of the lower grades is a mistake. The work of the 
kindergarten should be continued to the high school, and we thought 
our system did it. Furthermore, we have come to the conclusion 
from our experience that this home work, unsystematic as it is, is far 
superior to the child in mental training than the one which provides 
for the work to be done at school under an instructor. 

The child is thrown more on his own resources to overcome obsta- 
cles than when at school. He must use his own mind or fail. Also, it puts 
on the parent what is his duty to do — to provide instruction in hand 
work for his child or give it himself. Th s it secures the cooperation 
of parents with the school. Then, again, our system is inexpensive, 
and can be carried out in every school in the land, and I have been 
satisfied to continue it until something can be arranged upon which 
advocates of manual training can agree better than they do now. 

This much for our theory. Our plan briefly stated is this: Home 
work in constructing objects according to working drawings provided 
at school. 

Home work upon anything for an exhibition to be held once or 
twice a year. For this exhibition, articles formed from the class 
drawings are taken. Also everything else representing hand- work. 
Girls are encouraged to diO plain sewing rather than fancy work; 
cooking rather than paintings; darning and patching rather than em- 
broidery. 

Now for results. 



3^8 Report of the 

First. Parents turn out in crowds to visit the exhibition and I have 
yet to hear the first note of adverse criticism. It meets their appro- 
bation. 

Second. In a great many instances, parents have provided their 
children with lathes, tools of various kinds, so that many of our boys 
are liable to do very creditable work. At our last exhibit two boys 
had complete steam engines of iron in working order. They made 
the patterns, moldings, castings, and did all the work. 

Third. Many girls are stimulated to learn to do plain sewing and 
cooking, and their mothers teach them or provide instruction because 
their children want it. * * * 

Yours truly, 

(Signed) L. H. Ckark, 

Principal. 

3. The "Whitewater State Normal School. 

The catalogue of this institution for 1887-8 states that ''A small 
workshop, begun a few years ago as an experiment, affords limited 
means for instruction and practice in the use of wood-working tools, 
and has proved a valuable adjunct of the scientific department. 
Members of the class in physics spend four hours each week, for 
twenty weeks, in learning the use of the fundamental tools, and how 
to construct simple apparatus ; the purpose being to make those who 
pass through this training, especially the young women, more inde- 
pendent and self-helpful under the limitations which surround the 
avera2:e teacher. 



Industrial Education Commission. 399 



INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS. 



The introduction of branches of manual training especially designed 
to meet the needs of girls has not advanced so far or so rapil}^ as the 
similar movement for boys; yet work in sewing, cooking, industrial 
drawing, etc., has been begun in many places, and the results have 
everywhere proved of the most gratifying and promising character. 
Without attempting any full enumeration of the places in which 
these exercises have been introduced, we present a few instances which 
will sufficiently indicate the method and scope of the work, and the 
wide field which it opens on both the economical and the educational 
side. 



1. BOSTON, MASS. 

Public Schools. 
Two school-kitchens for the instruction of girls from the neighbor- 
ing grammar schools, who come to the kitchens once a week for a two- 
hours' lesson, in classes of fifteen at a time, were opened in October, 
1885. In the first, which has taken the name '^ Boston School Kitchen 
Number One,'' were one hundred and fifty girls from the upper 
classes of four schools, including a few from the Horace Mann school 
for the deaf; in the other, one hundred and twenty-five girls from 
three schools. The cost of fitting up and operating these schools was 
at first met by two public-spirited ladies. The plan is for the city to 
assume the running expenses after one year. The master of the first 
school reports that '' the success attending the work has been com- 
plete, the one hundred and fifty girls belonging manifesting great in- 
terest and enthusiasm in the performance of all their duties; and, 
although many of them are obliged to come long distances, the at- 
tendance has been excellent. The same programme — bill of fare — is 
continued throughout a week, each class having one lesson ; and it is 
sent to the various schools represented, where it is placed conspicu- 
ously before all the scholars, with directions intorming them for what 
price the prepared food can be purchased. An opportunity is thus 
presented for each pupil to buy, at cost of materials, the dishes cooked 
by herself. Thus is gained a two-fold advantage. In a pecuniary 
and economical view it provides in a large measure for the expense 
of supplies, and for the proper disposal of the food without trouble 
or waste ; but the benefit conferred upon the community by this dis- 
tribution of scientific cookery (and economical marketing) among 



400 Report of the 

the homes is beyond calculation. The pecuniary consideration is lost 
sight of, as but of little moment, when compared with this approach 
to the living center of the homes." 

It is not ''fancy Cv^oking " at all that these girls are taught; it is 
plain cooking of the common and inexpensive articles of food. The 
art of making plain living agreeable, of making limited means ample, 
of making the home always pleasant and attractive with modest out- 
lay — this is what these girls are acquiring. Thousands of homes now 
can be improved by giving the daughters this instruction in the 
domestic arts; and thousands more of future homes will be better 
and happier in consequence of such instruction. AVhat better protec- 
tion can society have against the ravages of intemperance and crime 
than homes, however humble, made happy and attractive by house- 
wifely thrift and good taste ? In the miseries of bad housekeeping 
the home too often yields its sway to the saloon. 

In November, 1886, the chairman of the committee on manual 
training reported : 

In the school kitchen No. 1, ten classes, of 15 girls each (each class 
receiving one lesson per week), have received 29 lessons. 

The school opened in October 4, 1S86, with the same number of 
pupils, from the same schools as above mentioijed. 

Over 700 persons, from nearly all parts of the country, visited this 
school during the year. One of the ladies kindly volunteered to pay 
again this year the expenses of the school because of the reduction by 
the city council of our appropriations. With our limited means we 
have been able to establish but one new scljool this year — a cooking 
school in South Boston. 

The cooking school in South Boston, or Boston school kitchen No. 
2, is located on the first floor of the Drake primary school. The 
kitchen is larger than those hitherto in use. We can accommodate 
20 girls per lesson or 400 per week. 

One hundred and thirty- four girls attend a private school of cookery 
on North Bennett street, under the superintendence of the committee. 
Thus all the girls in the schools of the city proper and South Boston 
have the oppartunity to receive a course of 20 lessons in cookery. 

These schools deserve great consideration from the committee. They 
are certainly popular with the people. Their usefulness reaches at 
once the, home circle and compels appreciation. The pupils are proud 
to be helpful at home. Their parents are much pleased with their 
welcome assistance. 

We have found masters, teachers, parents and pupils all heartily 
interested in this work. In the beginning there were teachers who 
had misgivings lest the manual work would interfere with the proper 
schooi work. We find no such teachers now. All the manual work- 
ers hold good rank in their schools. 

Petitions for schools of cookery have come to us from Dorchester, 



Industrial Education Commission 401 

Roxbury and East Boston. In Dorchester we are offered a school 
kitchen fully equipped if the school committee will carry it on. 

The following illustrates the work done in school kitchen No. 1. It 
is merely the bill of fare of one of the many dinners served in that 
school kicchen : 

Bill of Fare 

of dinner served at Boston school kitchen No. 1, June, 1886 : 

Potato soup ; croutons ; baked fish with parsley sauce; mashed potatoes ; shoulder 
of mutton, bone and stuffed; macaroni with white sauce; vegetable salad with 
boiled dressing ; hot rolls ; apple snow; crisped crackers; coffee. Ten persons 
served. Cost, |i.91 ; 19^^ cents each. 

The object of all public education is the development of the ability 
and character of each boy and girl. All good ability and character is 
profit to the community. Therefore the thorough development of the 
facilities for good of every boy and girl is most desirable. Manual 
training impresses upon every pupil the necessity of thoroughness, for 
all good work, all good results. A habit, a plan of work, insensibly 
grows on every pupil and goes with them into all school work. It is 
to be expected it will go with them, after their studies in our schools 
are ended, into their work in the world. There they will find a school, 
too, under much harsher rules. 

In school kitchen No, 1, for the first term, the expenses were as fol- 
lows : 
Cost of provisions and fuel for 150 girls, 20 lessons, .... $42 50 

Cost of provisions and fuel per girl, 20 lessons, 28^ 

Cost of provisions and fuel per girl per lesson, Ol^V 

Number of dishes cooked at home by pupils, 10,740. 

For the second term : 

Cost of provisions and fuel, 150 girls, 16 lessons, $33 00 

Cost of provisions and fuel per girl, 16 lessons, 22 

Cost of provision and fuel per girl per lesson, Olf 

Number of dishes cooked at home by pupils, 12,100. 

Total number of dishes cooked at home by pupils during both terms, 
22,840. 

Total number of pupils during the year, 300. 

Of 700 families who have been represented at this school during 
1885-1886, and to June, 1887, 692 have expressed themselves very 
much in favor of the school. Only 8 families have been indifi'erent or 
not favorable. 

At the close of the year 1887, four school kitchens had been estab- 
lished in the city. All except one being supported by public-spirited 
ladies. 

The chairman of the committe, in his report of December, 1887, 
says : 

It will be noted that to-day all the girls in the schools of the city, 
26Ed.Com. 



402 Repokt of the 

proper, South Boston, E-oxbury, and West Koxbury, have an oppor- 
tunity to receive a course of twenty lessons in cookery. The girls of 
a large part of Charlestown and East Boston, and a part of Dorchester, 
enjoy the same advantages. 

To-day 900 girls are attending our schools of cookery. JJuring the 
current school year, 1,800 will receive a good education in this line of 
work. In addition to the school kitchen, the kind-hearted ladies of 
the North Bennet street industrial school maintain, for the benefit of 
the children of our city, classes in carpentry,, printing, shoemaking, 
and modeling. 

Sewing. 

The following summary statement is quoted from the report of the 
United States Commissioner of Education, for 1886 87. 

^' At Boston, where the study has been most thoroughly introduced 
and organized, even to the extent of holding weekly meetings of the 
sewing teachers for conference, the course of instruction is, in brief, 
as follows : After the child has been taught h^/W to select thread and 
needle, to thread the needle and to hold it, it is put to basting together 
a bag-apron, in which to keep the work ; then it is taught to back- 
stitch, to hem, and to overcast the seams of the basted apron. This 
method has the advantage, says the supervisor of sewing, of interest- 
ing the child, since it is employed in making something that it is to 
wear. The material is almost invariably furnished by the pupil; the 
garment is prepared by the teacher and sewed under her direction. 
Great interest is manifested at the homes of the children, and cases 
are known in which the child has instructed the mother in the lesson 
that it has learned at school. In a few schools dressmaking has been 
introduced; simple dresses, however, are made in all the schools. In 
concluding her remarks the supervisor says : 

•'There is no doubt that the habits formed in connection with learn- 
ing to sew have an important influence on the life and character of 
the girls and their homes. It may be confidently asserted that the 
influence of the sewing is healthful and lasting upon the mind and 
character of the pupils, and on that account, no less than for its ma- 
terial utility, it deserves the respect and encouragement of the com- 
munity. As a department of school work it is second to none in the 
success which it has attained and the interest it has enlisted in and 
out of the school room. 

'' The inexpensiveness of the materials (in Boston costing about $200 
a year), the cleanliness, and particularly the simplicity of the work, 
permitting the pupil to remain at her desk, render sewing much less 
difiicult to introduce and maintain as a duty than cooking, which not 
only requires appliances that are inappropriate to a school room, but 
an activity that is incompatible with the order that is exacted there." 



Industrial Education Commission. 403 



2. BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



Pratt Institute. 



Courses in cooking, sewing, millinery, art embroidery and dress- 
making have been established for girls in Pratt Institute. 

Cooking. 

The cooking school was opened January 20, 1888, with a class of 
twenty ladies. Other classes were organized, and in March there 
were three classes with twenty-five pupils in each. A course con- 
sists of twelve lessons, one lesson ol two hours' duration being given 
weekly. One hundred and eight pupils have been connected with 
the cooking-school. Many applicants have been unable to gain admis- 
sion, but in the future there will be accommodations for a much larger 
number of pupils. 

The evening classes are reserved forself-supporting women, the day 
classes are open to all. 

The rooms of the cooking school are on the sixth floor of the main 
building. The}^ are excellently ventilated by large sky-lights with 
numerous swinging sashes in the roof, besides window-sash and side- 
wall ventilators. In the center under the sky light are two large 
cooking-tables, twelve feet long by four feet wide. Each is furnished 
with ten gas burners for cooking, and ten drawers with shelves below. 
Every drawer and set of shelves is supplied with a complete assort- 
ment of cooking utensils, so that twenty people can work at the same 
time. All the appointments of a well-ordered kitchen are here found, 
such as hot and cold water, galvanized iron sinks, range, stove, closets, 
dressers, refrigerator, etc. 

There are three courses in cooking, of twelve lessons each, advanc- 
ing regularly from the simplest to the more elaborate dishes. Every 
pupil is required to give evidence of her thorough acquaintance with 
the elementary before passing to the higher course. A practical ap- 
plication of the principles taught is insured, since each pupil works 
out wilh her own hands the receip s given her. The instruction com- 
prises lessons on the building and care of a fire, proper modes of mea- 
suring liquids and solids, of boiling meats, eggs and vegetables, broil- 
ing and roasting meats, of making soup, puddings, and, mosD import- 
ant of all, bread; in short, the principles and practice of good, plain, 
wholesome cooking. Every pupil is urged to try all the dishes at 
home, and a record is kept of the number thus made 

In connection with every lesson a brief lecture or explanation is 
given by the instructor upon the chemical and nutritive properties of 



404 Eeport of the 

the materials used, the changes produced by cooking, etc.; and when 
a pupil has completed a full course of thirty six lessons, it is expected 
that she will not only be able to prepare all varieties of wholesome 
and appetizing food, but will also have a good understanding of the 
properties of the various food materials, their values as nutritive 
agents, the chemical changes involved in the processes of preparation, 
and other matters necessary to thorough and intelligent work. 

In front of the cooking-iooms is the lunch room, where a simple 
meal, well served, is furnished at noon and at evening for a small 
sum. This is intended primarily for the use of the teachers and 
students connected with the institute. 

Sewjng. 

The sewing class opened February 23, 1888. Twenty-four pupils 
were present at the first lesson, and at the second twelve more entered, 
enlarging the class to such an extent that it was necessary to divide 
it. An evening class began work March 9, and a class for school 
children was opened Saturday morning, April 7. 

The large room on the south ?ide of the third floor of the main build- 
ing is used for the sewing classes. 

The instruction comprises all kinds of hand-sewing, from simple 
overhanding to button-holes, hem-stitching, feather stitching, and in- 
struction in machine-sawing. Cutting and making plain garments 
from pattern is also taught after pupils have acquired a knowledge of 
hand-sewing. 

Millinery. 

Two classes were organized April 19, and a third April 25, for in- 
struction in millinery. In these, as in all other classes, the principles 
taught will be practically applied, each pupil making duriog the course 
an entire hat or bonnet, in which good taste and good workmanship 
shall be combined. 

Art Embroidery. 

All applicants for admission to classes in art embroidery are advised 
to complete a short course in drawing and color as indispensable to 
good work. A knowledge of hand-sewing is required for entrance, 
since a pupil must first learn to use the needle in elementary work 
before taking up the complex art of embroidery. It is desired to train 
women who shall be able to originate good designs both as to color 
and form, and not be forced to continually copy the designs of others 

Dressmaking. 

March 19, 1888, three classes of twelve pupils each began a course 
of ten lessons in dressmaking, each class receiving one lesson of two 
hours' duration per week. One class meets in the morning, one in 



Industrial Education CoMivnssiON. 405 

the afternoon, and one in the evening. April 10, another class of 
twelve was iormed and began work. Many applicants have been un- 
able to enter, but hereafter a much larger number can be accommo- 
dated. 

Large tables for drafting, tracing and cutting, comfortable chairs, 
sewing machines, blackboard, and closets for storing materials, afford 
every facility for doing the best work. 

A systematic course of dressmaking is offered — a knowledge of 
hand and machine sewing, as well as some experience in making 
simple garments from pattern, being required for entrance. Each 
pupil, under the guidance of the teacher, learns to fit, make and 
drape an entire dress for herself or others from measure during the 
course. 

It will be the aim of the teacher to include in her instructions the 
principles and ideas of good taste in dress, that it may be not only a 
dress well fitted, well made, and tastefully draped which the pupil 
has produced, but also one best suited to her form and coloring, 
thereby endeavoring to train dressmakers who will have a sense of 
the value of the true artistic element in dress, combined with thorough 
workmanship. 

Department of Domestic Science — Fees. 

Cookery. — Day classes, $3.50 each for first and second courses, and 
.T5 GO for third course. 
Evening classes, $1.50 each for first and second courses, 
and $2.00 for third course. 
Seicing. — For course of twenty-four lessons : 

Day classes, $4 00 

Evening classes, 2 00 

Day classes for children, 2 50 

Dressmaking. — Courses consist of twelve lessons : 

Elementary day classes, $5 00 

Elementary evening classes, : ' . . 3 00 

Advanced day classes, 10 00 

Advanced evening classes, 7 00 

Millinery. — Twelve lessons. 

Day classes, . .' . $4 00 

Evening classes, 2 00 



406 Eeport of the 



3. CLEVELAND, OHIO. 

Public Schools. 

The superintendent of the Cleveland public schools gives the fol- 
lowing account of the cooking school of that city : 

''Although this school did not become a part of the manual train- 
ing school until the close of the year for which this report is made, 
yet its importance and success have been so marked that I submit the 
following relative to its history and work : 

" In the fall of 188J, a few young ladies, possessed of a commenda- 
ble missionary spirit, opened a kitchen garden in one of the basement 
rooms of Unity Church, about twenty pupils being in attendance. 
The school grew and prospered beyond expectation, so that early in 
3886 it was found necessary in order to extend the work so as to meet 
the demands to organize on a more permanent basis. The 'Cleve- 
land Domestic Training Association ' was the result. In February of 
this year the cooking class was formed and opened at No. 479 Superior 
street, seventy girls being enrolled the first term. By permission of 
the board of education free classes were formed from the pupils of 
Rockwell school. More than seventy pupils desired to enter, but less 
than Mty could be accommodated. 

"In September, 1887, the cooking department of the association 
became a regular branch of the Cleveland manual training school. 
A sum of money was set aside to defray the expenses of teaching a 
certain number of pupils from the city public schools. By this 
arrangement four hundred and twenty-one girls received ten lessons 
each free of cost. The benefits of this school seem so marked that it 
is to be hoped that better quarters and more ample accommodations 
may be secured. This school was among the first to be organized in 
this country. Already a number of others, similarly organized, have 
been established in the larger cities. 

" I append the lessons for one term : 

^^ Menu Jir St week. — Lamb chops, cranberries, mashed potatoes, oatmeal, baked 
apples. 

'■'' For second week. — Potato soup, scrambled eggs, turnips in white sauce, apple 
tapioca. 

'•'■ For third iveek. — Fish balls, milk toast, apple shortcake, coffee. 

<■<■ For fourth week. — Mixing and baking bread and biscuit, tomato soup, steamed 
rice. 

'■'■ For fifth week. — O^^ster stew, corn cake, toasted crackers, griddled cakes, lemon 
syrups. 

'■'■For sixth week. — Corn beef hash, frying out fat, rye muffins, doughnuts. 

^'^ For seventh week. — Beef stew", dumplings, chocolate, cookies. 

*' For eighth week. — Creamed cod fish, French toast, cottage i^udding, sauce. 



Industrial Education Commission. 407 

"jPo?- ninth lueek. — OoUops or Hamburg steak, Lyonnaise potatoes, apple pie, gin- 
gerbread. 

^'For tenth week.— Green pea soup, fried fisli, potato balls, floating island and plain 
cake. 

''This enterprise opens up a field of very great interest, second to 
none in point of practical importance. There is no attempt af fancy 
cooking." On the contrary, the sole aim is to teach the girls how to 
make good bread, how to cook plain every day articles, how to prepare 
and serve a aood, palatable, wholesome meal from ordinary materials, 
and how to do this in the most economical and satisfactory manner. 
Notes are taken and recipes copied. The pupils do actual cooking 
under the immediate supervision of skilled teachers. Not only so. 
but the home kitchen becomes the 'practice school' of the interested 
learners, thus transferring the benefits of the school to hundreds of 
homes throughout the city. Says Superintendent Seaver of Boston, 
in speaking of the cooking Echool of that city : 

'"The art of making plain living agreeable, of making limited 
means ample, of making the home always pleasant and attractive 
with modest outlay — this is what the girls are learning.' 

''All this is equally true of Cleveland. A practical knowledge 
of the domestic arts can result only in the elevation and refinement 
of the home in which this knowledge is applied. This enterprise is a 
legitimate outgrowth of the new education. It is a clear illustration 
of the obedience of the hand to the dictate of the will for the accom- 
plishment of a definite object. It is a realization in a small way of 
the desire to have something practical taught in the schools. Viewed 
from any standpoint, it is an enterprise worth}" of encouragement." 



4. LAFAYETTE, INDIANA. 

Purdue University. 

The "School of Industrial Art" in Purdue University has special 
attractions for young women and has produced some excellent work, 
as illustrated by the plate already given on page 105. The object of 
the school and the course of study in full are as follows : 

The object of this school is, in addition to giving a good general 
education, to give a practical knowledge of object drawing in outline, 
light and shade, and color : of linear perspective ; of orthographic pro- 
jection, or the drawing of plans, elevations and sections; of wood- 
carving or clay modeling, including historical ornament and decorative 
design. 

Freshman, Year. 
Industrial Art. — Twenty-seven weeks, five hours per w^eek, and eleven weeks, 
fifteen hours per week. Model drawing in outline. This includes free-hand, out- 
line drawing from round geometrical solids, as cylinders, cones, vases and crock- 
ery ware ; from straight line objects, as cubes, prisms, crosses and pj^ramids ; also, 
the drawing of the above objects in groups and their application in drawing chairs, 



408 Report of the 

tables, sofas and buildings. Linear perspective. — This subject includes the working 
of about one hundred problems illustrating the principles of parallel, angular and 
oblique perspective, and showing how to put into perspective any object. Ortho- 
graphic projection. — The instruction in this subject includes the drawing of about 
one hundred problems, illustrating the principles for making " working drawings," 
including plans, elevations, developments and intersections. Light and shade.— 
Under this head model and object drawing in light and shade will be taught, using 
first the crayon and the stump. 

Geometry. — Twenty-seven weeks, five hours per week. 
Algebra. — Eleven weeks, five hours per week. 
Rhetoric. — Thirty-eight weeks, three hours per week. 
Elocution. — Twenty-seven weeks, one hour per week. 

French or German. — Twenty-seven weeks, five hours per week, and eleven weeks, 
two hours per week. 

SoPHOMOBE Year. 

Industrial Art. — Twenty-three weeks, five hours per week ; four weeks, ten hours 
per week; and eleven weeks, fifteen hours per week. Light and shade. — Further 
practice will be given under this head in drawing from casts and in using the brash 
Color. — The instruction here enibra(;es the theory of color, including the principles 
of harmony and contrast, and practice in water colors, as applied to object drawing 
and still life. 

Higher Algebra. — Twelve weeks, five hours per week. 
Trigonometry. — Eleven weeks, five hours per week. 
English Literature. — Nineteen weeks, three hours per week. 
History. — Nineteen weeks, three hours per week. 
Physics. — Thirty-eight weeks, four hours per week. 

French or German. — Thirty-eight weeks, two and one-half hours per week. 
Elocution. — Nineteen weeks, one hour per week. 

Junior Year. 
Industrial Art. — Thirty-eight weeks, ten hours per week. Students who have 
satisfactorily completed the work of the freshman and sophomore years in the school 
of industrial art are supposed to have a fair knowledge of drawing, at least sufiicient 
to enable them to take up some special line of work, as wood carving or clay model- 
ing. Wood carving. — A.t first the sharpening and the proper handling of tools are 
taught. Incised and low relief carving is then practiced, followed by medium and 
high relief work, as skill in the use of tools may warrant. Students begin to carve 
easels, tables, sideboards, etc., soon after entering the carving class. Historical orna- 
ment. — An outline of the principal styles of historical ornament, together with Illus- 
trative examples, Tvill be given with wood carving or clay modeling in the junior 
year, during the second and third terms. 
Chemistry. — General chemistry, twenty-seven weeks, eight hours per week ; and 

applied chemistry, eleven weeks, eight hours per week. 
Elective Studies.— J nniov^ must elect two of the following : 

1. Analytical Geometry and Calculus. — Thirty-eight weeks, five 

hours per week. 

2. Literature and History. — Thirty-eight weeks, four hours per 

week. 

3. French or German. — Thirty-eight weeks, four hours per week. 

Senior Year. 

Industrial Art. — Thirty-five weeks, eight hours per week. During the senior 
yeai*, students may continue wood carving in connection with decorative design ; or, 
if a sufficient number desire it, they may continue the course in clay modeling in 
connection with decorative design ; or they may take an advanced course in draw- 
ing, including casts and the human figure. Clay modeling. — The stud3'' and practice 
of this subject is a good preparation for work in wood, iron, stone, marble, silver or 
gold. It is indispensable to the first-class plasterer, stone cutter and sculptor. After 
some practice in modeling simple ornaments, leaves, fruits, flowers, etc., the student 



Industrial Education Commission. 409 

is allowed to work on such subjects as will probably be of use in his future profes- 
sion—it may be tiles, pottery, architectural terra cotta, or the human figure, Decora- 
tive design.— In this course the principles of flat and sculptured ornamentation are 
studied and applied in designing surface decorations of all kinds. Advanced draw- 
ing.— This course may include the balancing of the human figure as a whole, the 
expression of character in the face, including caricature, drawing the figure from 
casts and the living model. Crayon or the brush may be used. 
Human Physiology. — Nineteen weeks, four hours per week. 
Geology.— 'Sixteen weeks, four hours per week. 
Psychology. — Nineteen weeks, four hours per week. 
Political Economy. — Sixteen weeks, four hour per week. 

Elective TFc?'/^.— Thirty-five weeks, four hours per week in literature, or additional 
art work, ten hours per week. 



5. NEWPORT, R. I. 

Industrial School for Girls. 

Miss Katherine P. Wormeley who has devoted herself with great 
earnestness to the introduction of the industrial idea into the public 
schools of Newport, furnishes the following interesting account of 
this school : 

'' At the close of the school, June 30, 1888, we had taught in all 
classes since July 1st, 1887, 510 girls. The girls come to us, at 4.15 
P.M. after the session of the public schools; usually the girls from 
each school house come in a body. The high school girls and some 
of the older girls come to evening classes at 7.30 p. m. 

" The present school year began September Sd, 1888, with 140 girls 
in the cooking classes, 75 in the cutting, fitting and dressmaking 
classes, 136 in ihe sewing classes, of which 72 are also in the house- 
hold work classes. 

" The cooking classes (fifteen to each class) are taught on the gen- 
eral system of the Boston school kitchen, with changes to suit our 
wishes. 

'' The cutting, fitting and dressmaking classes (ten in each), are 
taught by the Root ' Magic Scale ' system. 

''The sewina; classes (24 and 36 in a class) are taught on a system of 
our own. 

" The household work classes (36 in a class) are taught on Saturdays 
only, by lessons prepared by us — the original idea coming from Miss 
Huntingdon's system. This class shows remarkable results in families. 

'^ We have at this moment no vacancies in any class. Girls are never 
absent unless from illness or some actual cause. The public school 
teachers tell us that the girls are so anxious to get off at 4 p. m. when 
the session closes that they take good care not to deserve to be kept 
after school. We have never had any girl troublesome or really inat- 
tentive in the school. In saying this, I must state that our discipline 
is quite as strict as that of the public schools. At the outset I felt the 
importance of this, and have enforced it. Of course the teachers are 



410 Keport of the 

friendly and kind with the children (in fact we are all friends 
together) but, for instance, no girl ever speaks without permission, or, 
except in the sowing classes, without standing up. This may seem a 
small matter, but I regard it as important in a school which has no 
rights over the ctiidren and no power to enforce ditcipline or attend- 
ance. 

" We take no children under ten years of age. 

" The fact that we never have a vacancy for which applicants are not 
waiting, and the character of the letters which I receive from parents, 
when occasion calls them forth, are sufficient to prove the demand, 
and the strong feeling of parents, for the instruction given at this school. 

"I answer many letters of inquiry from all parts of the country about . 
the school. To several (in Illinois, Iowa, western New York, Mary- 
land) I have sent details of our methods, sets of cooking and house- 
hold work lessons, etc." 

Under date of November 4, 1888, she writes : 

" I am. very anxious that the school shall become part of the public 
school system — partly because it will not be permanent in any other 
way; partly because I do not think it proper that a limited class of 
persons should continue to pay, year after year, for an education so 
eagerly sought by the pupils of the public schools ; and partly because 
I, personally, am fully convinced that public education has reached a 
stage where, for its own health's sake, it needs the element of train- 
ing for actual life." j 

Under date of September 1, 1888, Miss Wormeley made public the 
following additional statement : 

"The industrial school for girls opens on Monday with one hundred 
and ten pupils in the cooking school ; sixt}^ in the cutting and fitting 
classes; one hundred and thirty in the sewing and household work 
school. There is room for ten more in the cooking school and twenty 
rrore in the cutting and fitting classes. The sewing classes are over 
full. During the last term of the school seventy-seven girls in six 
classes made 4,432 dishes in their own homes. This does not include 
the number made by two 'advanced classes'; twenty girls finished 
well-fitting and well-made dresses. 

"The school, thanks to the liberality of its friends, is secure of sup- 
port, as follows : 
Estimated monthly expenses (for the ten school 

months), $250 00 

Annual subscriptions made to me, $2,475 00 

Donations made to Miss Hunter, in March, 1888, 564 00 

3,039 00 

Balance on hand June 1, 1888 $1,082 92 

Estimated monthly expenses (^school closed June 23), . . 250 00 

E. and O. E. balance on hand July 1, 1888, $eS32 92 



Ikdustrial Education Commission. 411 



6. NEW YORK CITY. 

Public Schools. 

From the reports and manual : 

'• In accordance with your wish for a brief statement regarding the 
results of the manual training course which was introduced here in 
May last, I send the following: 

'' The cooking has been enthusiastically received by the pupils, and 
never have I seen more thoroughly interested workers than there are 
in that branch ot the course. Many report from week to week, the 
results of home work, thus giving proof of the hold it has upon them, 
and parents are constantly sigaifying their graiiflcation at iis introduc- 
tion. 

" The study of the chemistry of cooking, and an intelligent applica- 
tion of this knowledge cannot fail to work a complete revolution in 
the homes of thousands who now suffer from ignorance of the simplest 
laws governing the proper preparation of food. 

'•Its educational advantage is manifested in the gradual development 
in self-reliance and judgment in pupils who are particularly weak in 
these respects, and in a corresponding improvement in those who are 
naturally stronger. 

"The children who have instruction in sewing are also much inter- 
ested. 

'' In the initial stages of this subject, when the judgment must be 
used, it doubtless has its value as a means to the desired end. but the 
future must show whether it is of sufficient value to have school time 
given to it in so many of the grammar school grades. It will do 
much towards fostering a spirit of economy, and therefore, must be 
recognized as a useful branch. 

" My limited experience in the form and drawing course, already 
shows me that it cultivates ingenuity, increases the executive power, 
makes close observers and accurate thinkers as well as doers. 

''I think this is the most important part of the manual training 
course, for it must be the foundation of the perfected structure. 

" My experience thus far in industrial education in our schools leads 
me to conclude that the course of instruction in sewing and cooking 
is beneficial to the pupils of our schools, inasmuch as the systematic 
and philosophic methods laid down for both of these departments 
must necessarily result in inculcating habits of attention, neatness, 
and judgment, Avhich will benefit children not only in these special 
branches, but in all others during school life, and which will prove of 
inestimable value in after life." 



412 Report of the 

Cooking. 

Third Grade. 
General Notes. 

Materials. — Materials which compose the tissues of the human body : table of 
compound elements ; ot chemical elements ; water the chief constituent ; how these 
tissues are constantly in process of wasting ; effects of muscular action, voluntary 
and involuntary ; thinking, etc. 

Repair. — The wasting of the tissues makes food necessary. How the tissues are 
constantlj'' renewed, repaired, sustained. 

Alimentation. — The food must contain the same elements as those which are being 
lost from the body. 

Cooking. — Few solid materials, excepting certain fruits, are naturally ready for 
digestion and assimilation. Cooking prepares for digestion, especially of many 
vegetable substances. It must also make food palatable. 

Nutriment. — Nutritive value of different kinds of foods largely dependent upon 
cooking. Elements supplied from vegetable foods ; from animal foods ; chief vege- 
tables that supply a certain element, such as starch, sugar, sulphur, lime, etc. 

The four compound groujjs. — The mineral group — water, salt, etc.; the starch and 
sugar group ; the fals group ; the albuminoid group. 

Nutrititive value not dependent alone upon the quantity of one or more elements, 
but rather upon the combination of several elements. 

Compound foods generally the most nutritious. 

Examples : Milk, chief of natural foods, contains water, sugar, butter, caseine, 
various salts, etc. Bread, chief of cooked foods, contains water, sugar, starch, glu- 
ten, phosphate of lime, etc. 

Thefoiir chief chemical elements of food. — Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitro- 
gen. 

Related Facts, Physical and Chemical. 

Heat, practical sources of, for cooking ; kinds of fuel ; wood, anthracite, bitumi- 
nous coal, charcoal, gas. 

What combustion is. 

Effects of heat on water, boiling ; temperature of boiling water at sea level in open 
vessel ; less at elevations ; w6y ? temperature at "simmering" ; popular mistake about 
this ; what becomes of the added heat ; practical uses of this knowledge ; how tem- 
peratures higher than 212° may be obtained ; w^hen necessary or useful; effects of 
tight or heavy lid of a closed vessel ; why a vessel no longer boils over on removing 
the cover ; effects of a strong solution of salt upon the boiling point ; temperature of 
steam ; practical uses of these facts. 

High temperatures of flames— effects of draught in increasing them — moderate 
white heat, 1,300° — (a poker put into a kitchen stove will often show more than this) 
— melting point of iron, 2,7860 — blast furnace, 3,300° — what the clinkers in a fire 
chamber tell. 

Physical effects of heat on the albumen of eggs ; on that of flesh ; on starch ; on 
the gluten of bread ; proper temperature lor various purposes. 

Effects of boiling as applied to fresh meats— to meat for soups — to salt meat — 
effects and changes previously wrought by the salt, or, how salted flesh or fish 
differs from fresh — boiling as applied to vegetables — when steaming is preferable. 

General principles of baking, roasting, boiling, frying, etc. 

Chemical effects of overheating— on bread — what burned or badly scorched bread 
has become — effect on other foods — special effects on fats, particularly in frying ; the 
decomposition produces a very acrid substance, acroleine : injurious eftects upon 
the stomach. 

Principle of raising bread, biscuits, etc., — air or carbonic acid set free, and ex- 
panded by heat. 

Baking powders — their proper ingredients — cheapness and poisonous efl"ects of 
those containing alum — carbonic acid directly set free from the chemicals and re- 
tained in small bubbles by the gluten. 



Industrial Education Commission. 413 

Yeast— M'hat it is— simple account of the growth of the yeast plant; changes 
wrought by it in the sugar of the flour — products— alcohol and carbonic acid — 
alcohol escapes in baking — carbonic acid forms the vesicles— why bread or cake 
"falls" in the oven if the heat is not properly maintained. 

Leaven — what it is — how it acts. 
• Effects of boiling water on yeast or leaven. 

What causes the crust of pastry to be light and flaky. 

How eggs may make cake "lighter." 

Food of ivfayits — of convalescents. 

Avoidable causes of dyspepsia. 

The germ theory — its importance— why milk and certain cooked foods sour and 
ferment ; why flesh and fish spoil ; why fruit decays. Effects of cold or ice ; of 
heat; of salt, sugar, borax, salicylic acid, etc., in preserving food. 

Apparatus — stoves, ovens, etc., — care of drafts and dampers. Lined ovens. Im- 
portance of keeping all clean, inside and out. 

Utensils — absolute cleanliness indispensable — care necessary when vessels of iron» 
tin or copper are used— effects of iron on tea and coffee— of acids and fats on copper 
— verdigris — the condition of water that has been for hours in a lead pipe — dangers 
of old plumbing; health and even life often dependent on a knowledge of these 
things. 

Purchasing food — discrimination as to wholesome and unwholesome ; how^ to 
know fresh vegetables — fresh meats; fresh eggs; limed eggs; young poultry; to 
distinguish lamb from mutton ; fresh fish ; when salted beef has been properly 
cured. 

The choice of parts — the butchers' names for parts of an ox — how to know good 
beef— the choicest parts of a poor animal are inferior as food to any part of a good 
animal. 

Methods and practice in cooking — involving simple practical applications of facts 
and principles taught. 

Second Grade. 
As in third grade. 

Sewing. 

Eighth Grade. 

Suggestions. 

.Use blackboard to illustrate stitches as in primary grades. See that the girls' 
work is rolled up by itself and marked distinctly. The teacher must now insist 
that the stitches shall be made small as well as even. 

As a review of the work of the primary grades, it would be well to have each 
pupil make a thimble bag of white muslin, and sew on it her name, written upon a 
strip of muslin. When the work is put up, this bag can be pinned to it with thimble 
in it. 

Review hems and bias fells : Follow these with the French seam. This is a form 
of seam much used in certain kinds of undergarments. It is made by first running 
the seam on the right side of the work, turning it over, and stitching it on the wrong 
side. This gives strength and is neater than an overcast seam. 

Gathering. — Work must be prepared by dividing it into halves and quarters, 
marking divisions by putting in pins. This will be of service in insuring evenness 
when the work is put on the bands. 

Coarse thread should be used and be broken off in pieces not too long. Leave 
about a quarter of an inch of the raw edge; (hen gather by taking up two threads 
and skipping four threads. Draw up the stitches and fasten the thread by twisting 
it around a pin ; then with a coarse needle or a pin place each gather straight, hold- 
ing the muslin between thumb and forefinger. 

To put gathers into a band it is necessary first to baste on the band most carefully. 
Divide it to correspond with the divisions in the gathers, marked by the pins. The 
band should then be hemmed on both sides, the stitches being made small enough 
to take in each gather. 



414 Report of the 

Seventh Grade. 

Button-holes. — Use as coarse a thread and as fine a needle as possible. The child 
should be taught to cut, by a thread, a hole a little larger than the button, to take 
two stitches at the start, and hold the muslin along the first finger lengthwise- 
Then let the hole be overcast closely, barring the ends about two threads deep. 
Commence the button-hole stitch at the bottom of the left side. This stitch is made 
by passing the thread around the needle after it is in position for drawing through 
the cloth. Stitches should be close and even, one thread between each stitch and 
the following one. Four stitches should be taken at tlie end for strength. 

Sewing on Buttons. — Use double thread, concealing the knot under the button ; 
let two stitches be then taken across both ways, making lines on the wrong side ; 
then pass the needle several times through the button. To finish off, let the thread 
be wound around the button, and fastened with two stitches on the wrong side. 

Bat ching.— Calico or striped muslin is useful tor this. Cut the whole even by the 
thread; the pieces to be put in should be larger than the hole. It must then be 
taken from tlie inside and fastened on corner of hole, running it in exce^Jt at the 
corners, where back stitches should be taken. In turning the corner, a little notch 
must be made with the scissors close to the stitches, to prevent drawing, and to make 
the corner pointed. The seam should then be felled down. 

Sixth Grade. 

Herrinrj-bone Stitch. — This stitch is used specially for sewing down flannel seams 
and for flannel patching. 

The stitch is commenced at the left, which is the opposite end of the work to that 
at which all other sewing begins. Fasten the thread at the top of the seam, b^^ a 
small stitch ; then bring it down about a quarter of an inch, slanting it to the right ; 
make then another small stitch — cross the thread and bring it back to the top. 

The stitches at the top and bottom should be a quarter of an inch apart, and so 
placed that each of those of the lower row will be directly under the middle of tlie 
open space between two of those of the upper row. 

Barninr/ Stockings. — For this stitch get the children to bring old coarse stockings 
from home ; use darning cotton and needle. Trim otf the edges of the hole, pass the 
thread under the end of the hole, then with it go back and forth from top to bottom, 
taking up woven stitches of the stocking, and running into the stocking about a 
quarter of an inch. Then from side to side pass the thread, taking up alternately 
one of the end to end threads, so weaving the threads at the center. Tears and cuts 
should be treated in much the same waj'-. 

Fifth Grade. 

Work of pirevious grades reviewed, and followed by tucking. Great care should 
be exercised in creasing the tucks. A piece of paper should be cut with a notch o^ 
the same size as the proposed width, the muslin' be laid on the desk or a slate, and 
folded over with the paper to designate width. Crease the fold with the nail of the 
right-hand thumb ; then with fine running stitcl.es sew the fold. Turn it over and 
with forefinger scratch the sewing on wrong side, which will la^'- the tuck down 
smootlily. 

Gu&set.'i are specially used in finishing ofl" gentlemen's shirts. Take a two-inch 
square piece of muslin, cut it into two equal triangles; turn down rough edges of 
one of these triangles, called a gusset, also the edges of the seam into which this 
gusset is to be placed. T^ike the middle corner of the piece and fit it to where the 
sewing of the seam has stopped. Overhand it down half an inch each side with 
small stitches. Turn the gusset over on the wrong side of muslin and hem it down 
neatly. 

Fourth Grade. 

A system of taking measures upon geometrical ideas is here introduced. A.lso, 
with use of blackboard for illustrations, paper patterns of waists and undergarments 
are cut and afterwards fitted to figure. In tJiis grade the principle of drawing from 
scale and measurements will find practical application. 



Industrial Education OoMMrssioN. 415 



7. PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Public Schools. 

Superintendent MacAlister, under date of March 25, 1886, makes 
the following statement: 

" Sewing was introduced as a regular branch of instruction into the 
public schools of Philadelphia in the spring of 1885. 

'^ Instruction is given to the girls in all the grades above the primary 
— that is beginning with the third year of the school system. 

'' Special teachers are employed. These are assigned to districts 
comprising adjacent schools, and perform their duties m accordance 
with pro2;rammes which are arranged by the principals of the several 
girls' schools and the sewing teachers. 

" The following course of instruction must be regarded as merely 
tentative. The work has been carried on under it for about seven 
months, but it will not be authoritatively adopted by the board of 
public education until it has been thoroughly tested and modified as 
experience may dictate. 

'^ In starting, it was found necessary to begin the work in all the 
grades at the low^est stage of the instruction, and while the older 
pupils have made much more rapid progress than the younger ones, 
none of the classes have yet reached the highest stage of the course. 

"Instruction in sewing is also given in the girls' Normal School, 
where it was introduced five years ago, to 1,000 girls from 14 to 17 
years of age. At present, about 25,(00 girls are receiving instruction 
in sewing in the public school of the city." 

Course or Instruction in Sew^ing. 

Secondary Schools, 
Fifth Grade — Five Months. 

Position of tlie pupils while engaged in sewing. 

The proper use of the thimble finger, first finger and thumb of the right hand. 
Position of the left hand for holding the work. Drill in the same. 

Exercises in the action of taking a stitch and drawing the thread through the ma- 
terial. 

Drill in the threading of the needle. (Needles and thread may be given out at the 
beginning of the lesson.) 

Turning, basting and sewing plain hems. Attention to be given to accuracy in 
width of hems and size of stitches used in basting and hemming. Correct use of the 
scissoz's (paper maj'- be supplied for this purpose). 

Over-seaming on turned edges; the raw edges maybe turned in and hemmed 
down. 

If more material is needed than that furnished by the board of education, towels, 
wash-rags and similar articles may be hemmed. 



416 Report of the 

>Sixth Grade — Five Months. 

Questions and 'exercises in the use of thimble, scissors, threading the needle, the 
direction of the needle as used in basting and sewing a hem. Time for these exer- 
cises, five minutes. 

Over-seaming, with explanations and exercises in joining a new v/r broken thread. 

Seam, composed of one running and one back-stitch ; the raw edges to be overcast. 

Work brought from home may be table-napkins, towels, bags, desk-covers and 
pillow slips. 

Seventh Grade— Five Months. 

Questions on position, the proper use of the thimble and scissors. Exercise in 
threading the needle. Questions on the direction of the needle when used in bast- 
ing, hemming and over-seaming. Time for this exercise, five minutes. 

Seam made by half back-stitching ; the raw edges to be overcast. 

Reversible seam. 

Plain fell, sewed with running stitches, strengthened by an occasional back-stitch 
and finished with hemming. 

Back-stitched seam over cast on the raw edges. 

Patching commenced. 

Work brought from home may be towels, table-napkins, pillow-slips, rufiies to 
hem, bags and worn articles that may need patching. 

Eighth Grade — Five Months. 

Questions on the work of lower grades. Time for this exercise, five minutes. 

Plain fell repeated. Gathering, placing, or stroking the same. 

Sewing the gathers into a band, using half-back stitching ; the band finished with 
hemming. 

Darning commenced. 

Work brought from home may be gingham or calico, kitchen aprons, rufiies to 
hem and gather, darning and mending. 

Grammar ScHOOiiS. 
Ninth Grade — Five Months. 
Narrow hems ; hems of medium and broad widths. 

Tucks. Threads should not be drawn from the material to secure straight tucking. 
Plain fells less than one-eighth of an inch in width. French fells. 
Fine gathering, hemmed to a band. 
Button-holes commenced. 
Shirt or other four-holed buttons sewed on. 
Stocking mending and patching. 

Shoe-bags, sleeves, aprons, muslin skirts and plain undergarments may be brought 
from home to be made and kept in school until finished. 

Tenth Grade — Five Months. 

Bias seams of all kinds. 

Gathering, as done on dress skirts, to be over-seamed to a band. 

The two stitches used on flannel undergarments, viz ; herring-bone stitch and 
feather stitch. 

Button holes. 

Children's plain underwear, boys' shirt-waists, collars and cuff's, dusting caps and 
plain flannel shirts may be supplied from home. 

Mending of all kinds must be encouraged by the teacher. 

Eleventh and Twelfth Grades and Senior Class. 
Questions and review on all work done in previous grades. 
Cutting, fitting and making of plain garments. 

The work supplied from home may be shirts, undergarments of all kinds, and 
materials for above. 



Industrial Education Commission. 417 

Miss Charlotte Pendleton, on behalf of the Public Education Asso- 
ciation of Philadelphia, strongly urges an addition to the high school 
for girls, '* with suoh features of manual trainiog and related studies 
as will make it hold a similar relation to the education of girls as that 
held by the manual traiLing school to the education of boys." Her 
argument, in brief, is as follows : 

The establishment of the boys' manual training school involved 
simply the introduction of methods which had already been thoroughly 
tested, and we are fully sensible of the difficulties to be encountered 
in formulating household science, and in evolving the principles under- 
lying household economy. The establishment of such a school would 
involve all the difficulties and all the merits of original work. If suc- 
cessful, it would be, at least, as valuable in the social economy as 
manual training for boys; would lead to as many lucrative employ- 
ments, and would be only less creditable to ihe orgmators because 
the method is not original with them; for the great Russian, who ex- 
tracted the principles underlying the use of tools, pointed out the 
manner in which the underlying principles of any group of occupa- 
tions may be extracted and applied. 

The purpose is to secure for women the advantages of the new 
education from which, as yet, they have been excluded. 

In our opinion, the underlying principles of applied household 
science are better adapted to such a girls' high school than the under- 
lying principles of ihe use of tools. They bear natural relation to 
women's usual occupations, developing mental activity and manual 
dexterity in those subjects which will enter, in one form or another, 
into the life of every woman. They will intelligently and scientific- 
ally approach problems which they have heretofore approached in 
ignorance, and solved, if at all, by empirical methods. They would 
lead to openings in avocations and trades witxiout the economic ob- 
jection of covering exactly the same ground of approach to exactly 
the same trades as those toward which the manual training for boys 
is heading. We cannot overestimate the influence upon the home, 
upon the factory, and upon the school, of sending out into the com- 
munity a body of women thoroughly trained in the principles of 
applied household science. 

Such a department does not present any serious difficulty. Every 
school has classes in science which could be readily directed to bear 
upon the economy of the house, and which, by changing the text 
book to experimental methods, would be in accordance with the best 
tendency of the day in education, in classes of applied science and 
physics, covering economic botany and physiology, hygiene, sanita- 
tion and marketing. 

The department of manual training should include sewing, cooking, 
carpenteiing, molding, architectural and costume designing, illus- 
27 Ed. Com. 



418 Ebport of the 

trative particalarly of the evolution of the house, weaving, dyeing, 
etc. 

In the high school department proper, book keeping, conslitutional 
histor}^, and history and literature, if given in the new methods, which 
treat of customs, social life, etc., would bear as directly as household 
science upon the manual department. Instruction in at least one 
study of each o^ these departments should be given each day, so that, 
as in the boys' manual training, every step is only a development of 
that which has gone before. The home is no more qualified to give 
broad mental and manual education in the principles underlying 
household economy, than the shop is qualified to give instruction in 
the principles underlying the trades. 

The several branches of manual training for girls, which the board 
have introduced in this city, have led up to this possible solution of 
the difficult problem of what shall be taught to girls to set women 
thinking and working intelligently and profitably upon the great 
problems of household economy, which are as vital to the civic wel- 
fare as are the problems for whose solution we are seeking to fit men 
in the manual training schools. 

We trust that it will be given to Philadelphia to institute this great 
work for her own benefit and honor, and for the advantages of women 
wherever the system of public education extends. The following is 
an outline of the 

PPtOPOSED Scheme of Studies. 

1. Literary Department. — Ordinary English branches — book-keep- 
ing, history (especially the evolution of the house) illustrative of 
social customs; one language besides English, household economy, 
composition upon subjects relating to economics. 

2. Scienti-fic Department — Household chemistry, physics, especially 
as bearing upon hygiene and sanitation, namel}^ economic botany, that 
is the vegetable kingdom as the source of food supply, and wood where 
it enters into the structure of the house. Physiology as the source of 
lood supply, biology and geology and mathematics in those branches 
which bear upon economics; experiments in fei mentation and action 
of alkalies, acids, etc., upon tins, etc. 

3. Manual Training Department. — Drawing, free-hand, mechanical 
and architectural, designing, modeling and clay-baking, weaving, col- 
oring paper, wood and textile fabrics, dyeina:, staining, use of bench 
tools. For instance, in the applied household science, moths, what is 
their nature ? What do they feed on? Where do they lay their eggs? 
In what is it present? Examine hair under microscope that has not 
been properly cured. Cure the hair. 

Fermentations show the growth of the plant in grapes, vinegar, 
beans, canned fruits and vegetables, yeast, etc., experiment in fer- 



Industjrial Education Commission. 419 

mentation in these various growths. Extracts and various methods of 
flavoring, analyze dyes and their eff'ects when poisonous. Examine 
to this effect the threads in hose, etc., also to detect defective threads, 
flaws, etc., and to become familiar with the form of the thread. Color, 
form, texture ; color, form, texture ; through every year, every session 
every day, the eye, the hand, the brain, should be trained in precision 
and delicacy in dealing with these phenomena of matter. By design, 
free-hand and mechanical, to be carried out in wood and based upon 
mineral or vegetable forms revealed by the microscope, and carried 
out in form and color, in woven textile fabrics. Texture and form by 
spinning, weaving, including modeling and costuming. Color by 
staining and dyeing, each in its various stages. Will there ever be 
good supply until there is educated demand ? 



8. PITTSBURGH, PA. 

Pittsburgh Cooking School, or "School Kitchen." 

Mr. Charles Keisfar, Jr., secretary of the central board of education, 
Pittsburgh, kindly furnishes the following statement : 

November 15, 1888. 

"The Pittsburgh school kitchen was opened February 27,1888. 
Since this time two hundred and twenty-five (225) pupils have taken 
the prescribed course of study. 

" A copy of the enclosed blank was sent to the parents of the pupils 
attending school in order to ascertain their opinion as to the merits of 
the school kitchen. 

'•' We have received about two hundred answers, all favorable to the 
school." 

The following is a copy of the blank sent out : 

Office of City Supeeintendent, 

June 15. 1888. 
In order to ascertain the opinion of parents on the merits of the 
school kitchen as an educational agency, we would respectfully re- 
quest you to fill the following blanks, and also to make any other ob- 
servations that you may deem of value. 

Geo. J. LucKEY. 

1. Has the instruction received at the kitchen school been of value 
to your girl ? 

2. Has her attendance at the kitchen increased her interest in, and 
love for, home work ? 

3. Has her attendance at the school kitchen in any way interfered 
with her progress in other studies ? 

The commission was permitted to examine (he original answers to 



420 Keport of the 

this circular. The answer to the first two questions were in every 
case affirmative, and to the second, negative, the negative being: 
slightly qualified in two or three instances, as " not materially," " I 
think not,'' or a similar guarded expression. 

The value of the answer is greatly increased by this indication of 
deliberate carefulness on the part of the writers, and some of the ac- 
companying '' remarks" are so interesting, as testimony directly out 
of the home and exhibiting the observed influence there of the school 
room work, that extracts are here given : 

"The school kitchen is but one step in the order of making our education more 
prac Ileal." 

"The school kitchen is a move in the right direction, and is calculated to be of. 
great benefit to all classes, and especiallj^ to the middle class; no lady's education 
is complete unless she has a thorough knowledge of household duties, the principal 
feature of which is to be able to cook properly and economically. We hope the 
school kitchen will be continued." 

"I consider a course of lessons at the school kitchen to be desirable for any girl, 
and candidly admit that I have gained some ideas myselt Irom my little daughter's 
instruction." 

"I was greatly surprised and also very much pleased to see how well my girl 
learned to cook so many useful things ; as I would not have taken the time (nor pa- 
tience) to teach one so young, and I think the cooking school is a great success." 

" My little girl took little or no interest in kitchen work before her instructions in 
school kitchen, out since her first lesson she has been trying to cook, bake, etc., with 
more or less success, and is only too sorry that one more lesson is all that under tlie 
present arrangement she shall receive. I think that the educators of our com- 
munity would confer a great favor on our rising generation if they would increase 
and foster school kitchen instruction." 

"I am happy to congratulate you on the success of the school kitchen. 1 am very 
much pleased with the progress of the pupils made in general, and particular with 
my little daughter. In addition I favor the industrial school for girls to learn 
sewing and fine needle work (if not needed in future as a source to make a living)' 
they would learn how w^ork of that kind should be done, and if done correctly." 

"Two or three hours a week would not materially interfere with other studies, it 
would rather be a source of recreation for the children in my opinion." 

" My girl is a boy. I think if the cooking school makes the girls as anxious to 
prove that they can cook, as it has my boy, and if they do as well as he does, I think 
it is a decided success, he has practiced at home on quite a number of his lessons. 

" Don't think it has interfered with his regular lessons." 

"We are ready to vote the school kitchen a success. From observation (in the 
case of my daughter), I find, that cooking taught at home comes to the child in the 
nature of a task more or less disagreeable, and precludes to a great extent the suc- 
cess desired. At the school kitchen it presents itself in the more agreeable form of 
pleasant experiment, exciting enthusiasm, which in itself is a guarantee of success.'' 

" My daughter has cooked — at home — almost all the dishes in her course of study 
with much success ; they being palatable and nice in appearance. None of her cook- 
ing has gone fo the waste barrel." 

"I am satisfied from personal observations (in the case of my girl), that she has 
taken greater interest in the cooking department at home than ever before, and it 
seems to be a pleasure to her to go about her duties (probably owing to the splendid 
system she has been taught), what would otherwise have had the effect of proving 
burdensome." 

"I cheerfully endorse the system of home work as taught in the school kitchen.' 



Industrial Education Commission. 421 

"I think the school kitchen as an educational agency is or may be productive of 
great good." 

" No dyspeptic can be a Christian." 

" Dyspepsia is caused, in a great measure, by poor cooking. The school kitchen 
should improve the cooking, annihil.te dyspepsia and increase Christianity." 



9. TOLEDO, OHIO. 

Manual Training- School— Economy Department. 
The course of study and training for girls is as follows : 

FiEST Yeak. 

Senior Grammar School— {!) Mathematics. — Arithmetic. 

(2) Science. — Physical Geography. 

(3) Language. — Grammar, Spelling, Writing, English 

Composition. 
Manual Training School — (4) Drawing. — Free-hand and Mechanical, Lettering. 

(5) Domestic Economy. — Light Carpentry, Wood Carv- 
ing, Care and use of tools. 

Second Year. 

Junior High School — (I) Mathematics. — Algebra, Arithmetic. 

(2) Science. — Physiology and Botany. 

(3) Language. — Grammar, Rhetoric, Writing. 

Manual Training School — (4) Drawing. — Free-hand and Mechanical. Designs for 

Wood Carving. 
(5) Domestic Economy. — Clay Modeling, Wood Turning, 
Introduction to course in 
Cookina: or Garment Cutting 
and Making. 

Third Year. 

Middle High School — (1) Mathematics. — Geometry, Arithmetic Reviewed. 

(2) Science. — Physics. 

(3) Language.. — English, Composition, History. 

Manual Training School — (4) Drawing.— Fvee-h^nd and Architectural, Designing 

from Plant and Leaf Forms. 
(5) Domestic Economy. — Instruction in Preparing and 
Cooking Food, Purchasing 
Household Supplies, Care of 
the Sick, etc. 

Fourth Year. 

Senior High School— (I) Mathematics. — Plane Trigonometry, Mechanics. 

(2) Science. — Chemistry, Book-keeping, Ethics, Rights and 

Duties, Laws of Right Conduct. 

(3) Language. — Political Economy, English Literature and 

Composition. 
Manual Training School — (4) Drawing. — Machine and Architectural Details, Dec- 

oiative Designing. 
(5) Domestic JE'conomi/.— Cutting, Making and Fitting of 
Garments, Household Deco- 
rations, Typewriting, etc. 



422 Report of the 

"The above course in domestic economy is arranged with special 
reference to giving young women such a liberal and practical educa- 
tion as will inspire them with a belief in the dignity and nobleness of 
an earnest womanhood, and incite them to a faithful performance of 
the every-day duties of life ; it is based upon the assumption that a 
pleasant home is an essential element of broad culture, and one of the 
surest safeguards of morality and virtue. 

"■ The design of this course is to furnish thorough instructions in ap- 
plied housekeeping, and the sciences relating thereto, and students 
will receive practical drill in all branches of housework ; in the pur- 
chase and care of family supplies, and in general household manage- 
ment ; but will not be expected to perform more labor than is actually 
necessary for the desired instruction.'* 

Ill cookery practical instructions will be given in tlie means employed in boiling, 
broiling, baking, frying and mixing, as follows ; 

Boiling. — Practical illustrations of boiling and steaming, and treatment of vege- 
tables, nieats, fish and cereals, soup-making etc. 

Broiling. — Lessons and practice in meat, chicken, fish, oysters, etc. 

Breadmaking. — Chemical and mechanical action of materials used. Manipulations 
in breadmaking in its various departments. Yeasts and their substitutes. 

Baking. — Heat in its action on different materials in the process of baking. Prac- 
tical experiments in baking bread, pastry, puddings, cake, meats, fish, etc. 

Frying. — Chemical and mechanical principles involved and illustrated in the fry- 
ing ol vegetables, meats, fish, oysters, etc. 

Mixing. — The art of making combinations, as in soups, salads, puddings, pies, 
cakes, sauces, dressings, flavorings, condimeiits, etc. 

Marketing ayid Economy, etc. — The selection and purchase of household supplies. 
General instructions in systemizing and economizing household work and expenses. 
The anatomy of animals used as food, and how to choose and use the several parts. 
Lessons on the qualities of water and steam ; the construction of stoves and ranges ; 
the properties of different fuels. 

The textile fabric work will cover instructions in garment cutting and making; 
the economical and tasteful use of materials, millinery, etc. 

The second annual report of the school for 1886 says : 
'•The department of domestic economy has been received with 
great favor and support and promises to meet the full expecta;tions of 
those who most warmly encouraged its establishment. The instruc- 
tion in cookery has proved of great practical value." 



Industrial Education Commission. 423 



APPENDIX 11. 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN SOME FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 

1. Fkance. 

The system of public education in France, like every other branch 
of the public service, is highly centralized, and is so closely inter- 
woven with the administrative organization of the Republic that the 
former can scarcely be understood unless the latter is also kept in 
mind. 

For purposes of administration, France is divided into 87 depart- 
ments; these departments are subdivided into 362 '' arrondissements," 
2.865 "cantons," and about 36,000 ''communes." 

Each department is administered by a prefect appointed by the 
President of the republic, and each arrondissement by a sub-prefect; 
the prefects being divided into three classes, according to the import- 
ance of the department. 

The authority of the prefect is great in his own department ; he 
can issue local decrees; he appoints and dismisses a number of agents 
wlio depend directly on him; he is at the head of the police to main- 
tain public order, and for this purpose can summon the military 
forces ; he superintends the collection of taxes ; he is in correspondence 
with all the subordinate functionaries in his department, to whom he 
transmits the orders and instructions of the ministers; in one word, 
he is the general agent of Government, and the principal instrument 
of centralization in the State. He is assisted in his work by two 
bodies, the general council (conseil gemral)^ which is elected by 
universal suffrage, and the council of prefecture, which is nominated 
by the head of the executive power. The business of the council of 
prefecture is to decide all legal questions and to advise the prefect, 
when asked to do so. The general councils assess the taxes, authorize 
the purchase, sale, or exchange of departmental property, superin- 
tend the management of the same, decide about new roads, railways, 
or canals, vote the budget for sanitary and charitable institutions 
belonging to the department, and give advice on every matter of 
local interest, political questions being strictly excluded. 

A.S the prefect in the department, so the sub-prefect, with a more 
limited authority, is the representative of the central power in the 
arrondissement. He is assisted, and to a certain extent controlled, in 
his work by the council of arrondissement — an elective body to which 
each canton of the arrondissement sends one member. Except in 
that case, the canton is not an administrative division. 



424 Report of the 

The commune is the administrative unit in France, At its head is 
a mayor assisted by deputy mayors (adjoinis), the number of whom 
varies according to the poulation; communes of 2,500 inhabitants 
have one deputy-mayor; up to 10,000 inhabitants they have two, from 
10,000 to 30.000 three, and one additional for every 20,000. The 
mayor has a double part to perform, as he represents both the central 
power and the commune; and often it is a difficult matter to avoid a 
conflict of duties. He is besides oiRciep de Vetat clviL or official regis- 
trar of births, marriages, and deaths. The mayor and the deputy- 
mayor are not salaried officials. In the large towns they are nomi- 
nated by Government, but they must always be chosen out of the 
municipal council, which is elected on the principle of universal 
suffrage, and has with regard to the commune much the same power 
and duties as the general council wiih regard to the department. 

Educational Organization. 

Upon this system the above statement of which is borrowed almost 
literally from the Enc3xlopaedia Brittanica, is based the organization 
of the Service for Public Education.* 

From the University point of view, the territory of France is di- 
vided into seventeen «cacZem?e5. Each academie \v.\^ a rector at its 
head, who, under the authority of the Minister of Public Instruction, 
is charged with the material administration of higher and sec'^ndary 
education, and with the methods of primary instruction in his dis- 
trict. The administration of this last belongs to the prefect of ecich 
department, assisted by an academy inspector. In each of these three 
successive stages — department, academy and central administration — 
is placed a council, possessing administrative and disciplinary powers. 

The Departmental Council of Pablic Instruction^ which comprises 
six officials, four councillors-general (elected by their colleagues), two 
schoolmasters, and two schoolmistresses for public primary education 
(elected by their colleagues), and, in certain cases, masters of private 
schools elected in like manner, forms a disciplinary council for pri- 
mary education, either public or free (?!.e.. State or private). This 
council sees to the application of the programmes, lays down rules, 
and appoints one or more delegates in each canton to superintend 
primary schools. 

The Academic Council, which comprises officials, members elected 
by the professors of secondary and higher education, and members 
appointed by the Minister, performs similar functions with regard to 
secondary and higher education. 

The Higher Council of PuMic Instruction sits ac Paris. It com- 
prises forty-four elected representatives of the three educational or- 
ders, nine university officials, and four '' tree " schoolmasters appointed 

*This account is taken from the recent and valuable work of MM. Lebon and 
Pelet. " France as it is." 



Industrial Education Commission. 425 

by tlie Minister, and is the disciplinary court of appeal for the two 
preceding councils. The Minister is, moreover, obliged to consult it 
in all questions of programmes, methods, rules, etc., without, however, 
being bound to follow its opinion. 

Such is the frame work, administrative as well as judicial, in which 
education, whether public or free, lives and moves. And now kt us 
see what this education is, beginning with the public schools. 

The Different Degrees of Education. 

Since 1882 Primary Education has been compulsory for all chil- 
dren of both sexes, from the age of six to the end of the thirteenth 
year, unless before reaching the latter age they have been able to pa^s 
an examination, and to gain the certificate of primary studies. To 
satisfy the law, the child's name must be entered at a public or pri- 
vate school ; he may, however, continue to receive instruction at 
home, but in this case, after he has reached the age of eight, he must 
be examined every year before a State board, and if the examination 
is judged insufficient the parents may be compelled to send him to a 
public or private school. At the age of thirteen the child is set free 
from fuither teaching, whatever may be the results of the education 
he has received. The law's sanction lies in the right which a munici- 
pal school committee possesses of ordering the names of parents in 
default to be posted on the door of the town-hall. If the offense is re- 
peated the parents are liable to a fine of from one to fifteen francs, 
and to a term of imprisonment varying from one to five days, both 
which punishments have to be ordered by the Juge de Paix. 

In public schools the course of instruction does not include, as we 
have said, religious teaching; but one day in the week the school 
must take a holliday, to allow parents to provide such teaching for 
their children if they wish to do so. The school building cannot be 
used for that purpose. In private schools religious instruction may 
be given, but this is optional. 

The programme of primary education includes: Moral and civic in- 
struction, reading, writing, French, geography and history (particu- 
larly those of France), general notions of law and science, the ele- 
ments of drawing, modeling and music, and gymnastics. 

No person of either sex can become a teacher, either public or pri- 
vate, unless he possesses the " certificate of capacity for primary in- 
struction" given by a State board. For the future, putting aside cer- 
tain temporary arrangements, no member of a religious community 
will be eligible for the post of master in a public school. Private 
schools may be opened anywhere as long as a suitable building is cho- 
sen, and the State supervises them from the point of view of public 
morality alone. 

The public schoolmaster is a State official, appointed by the pre, 



426 Report of the 

feet, and is entitled to a retiring pension. In principle, it is true- 
pablic primary education has to be provided by the communes; it is, 
however, showing a marked tendency to lose this original character- 
istic and to become a charge upon the State. The State, in fact, be- 
gan by laying certain obligations on the communes ; afterwards, when 
education was made compulsory, it was made gratuitous to all chil- 
dren without exception ; this caused a considerable loss to the com- 
munes, and the State came to their help with regular grants. This 
help was repeated when the communes were obliged to burden them- 
selves with the cost of new school buildings, necessitated by the in- 
crease of the school-going population. Finally, from the point of 
view of the school courses, primary education, like the other grades 
of education, is centralized by the State. 

As a general rule, every commune is compelled to maintain a public 
scliool, and if it has more than five hundred inhabitants, a second 
school for girls only. It may also have, if it pleases, schools for little 
children {ecoles maternelles) or infant schools, for children under six ; 
supplementary evening classes for children over thirteen; higher 
grade primary schools where more advanced instruction can be had, 
etc.; but its strict obligations are limited to the primary school, prop- 
erly so-called. The department must provide a normal school for 
masters and a similar institution for mistresses, where they can be 
trained. The State, finally, has two training schools for the higher 
grade primary teaching at Fontenay and St. Cloud, near Paris, where 
masters are prepared for the departmental training schools. The re- 
sult of all this is, that the sum total of the State's expenses for primary 
education in 1887 is as high as eighty -five million frances ($17,000,- 
000) and that without mentioning grants for school buildings, whereas 
in 1887 the sum total was onlv twelve million ($2,400,000.) 

This considerable effort, which may even appear excessive when 
we consider the short space of time in which it has been accom- 
plished, has not been fruitless. The following figures will give some 
idea of what has been done. From 1877tol886, the number of public 
schools rose from 61,000 to 66,500; that of the pupils from 4,200,000 
to 4,500,000*, with 96,600 masters and mistressesf ; that of training 
schools for male teachers from 79 to 89, of training schools for female 
teachers from 18 to 77, with 5,400 pupils (3,500 of them women), and 
1,200 masters. As to the results a single fact will suffice. In these 
ten years, before the generations newly called tomilitary service have 
been able to profit fully by the new state of things, the proportion of 
illiterate recruits (which is annually made out directly after the lots 
are drawn) has already fallen from 15 to 11 per cent. 

*There are moreover 560 higher grade primary schools with 30,000 pupils. 

fin this total the number of members of religious communities has fallen from 
37,000 to 16,400, of whom 14,000 are women ; the remaining members of communi- 
ties are all provided with the necessary certificates of capacity, "lettresd'obedience" 
being no longer recognized. 



Industrial Education Commission. 427 

As to private primary education, the latest official figures are for 
the scholastic year 1885-1886. At that time it had 13,255 schools, of 
which 3,991 were lay, and 9,264 under the control of members of re- 
ligious communities, with 321,000 boys and 751,000 girls. 

At the present moment it is reckoned that twenty per cent, of chil- 
dren of the scholastic age are in private schools, and that of these 
17 percent, are in schools directed by members of religious commu- 
nities. The public schools taught by members of religious commu- 
nities are still tolerably numerous, these communities thus supplying 
the education of a total of 32 per cent of the children of France.* 

Secondary Education^ according to the official programmes, is di- 
vided into classical education (literary or scientific) and special. 
These three branches of education include some subjects common to 
them all, such as French, history, geography, etc., while others are 
special to each of them, or more developed in one branch than an- 
other. Latin and Greek form the principle basis of the Ijterary edu- 
cution, along with philosophy and the elements of mathematics and 
natural science. The study of the sciences sroes deeper in the scien- 
tific classical education, while that of the dead languages and philo- 
sophy is very limited. In each course the pupils have to learn one 
modern language (English, German, Spanish or Italian), while in the 
special education two modern languages are necessary, and also some 
knowledge of law and political economy. The duration of this educa- 
tion is from nine to ten years. Speaking broadly, and apart from its 
purpose of cultivating the mind generally, the classical education pre- 
pares for the higher studies which lead to the legal career, to the 
teaching of literature, to historical studies, etc., or (when it is scien- 
tific), to medicine and to the different professional State schools. The 
special education is reserved for youths destined to commerce or man- 
ufactures. 

At the present moment the State provides secondary education in 
98 lycees and 256 colleges distributed over the country. The lycees 
differ from colleges in the fact that the former are principally paid for 
by the State, while the communes bear the greater part of the ex- 
penses of the latter. Professors in lycees are of higher rank and 
superior capacity to those in colleges, and among the colleges those 
which are called second-class do not give the complete secondary 
education. In both lycees and colleges the programmes are the same, 
drawn up by the central authority and controlled by the State In- 
spectors, the expenses of the State for secondary education being 
thirteen and one-half million francs ($2,700,000). The professors are 
appointed by the State, and have to be provided with certain certifi- 
cates of capacity; there were 3,143 professors in the lycees in 1886. 

Of the above sum, however, one and a half million francs ($300,- 

*In 1885-1886 there were still 6,667 communes having educational courses for 
adults with 168,000 men pupils, and 1,135 with 30,000 women pupils. 



428 Eeport of the 

000), is devoted to the thirty-five lycees and colleges for the second- 
ary education of girls. The creation of these establishments, at- 
tempted for the first time in 1880, was intended to divert a certain 
number of girls fram the convents and private schools where they 
used to be taught, in order to give them an education which should 
conform in its general spirit — with the modifications made necessary 
by the difference of sex — to the education given to boys. There are 
still a considerable number of towns where neither lycees nor col- 
leges for girls have been started, and in these classes for secondary 
instruction have been organized for young ladies, and are held by the 
professors of the boys' schools. The results of this enterprise have 
been hitherto satisfactory, but it is still in its infancy. 

Secondary education is not, ot course, compulsory, but neither is it 
gratuitous. Two remarks are, however, necessary on this last point. 
On the one hand it is the custom to off*er a certain number of scholar- 
ships every year for competition among the poorest and cleverest 
children, the successful oneR receiving their education and sometimes 
their board and lodging free in the State* establishments; on the 
other hand, the price of board is very low for the paying pupils, and 
it may be said that, as far as that goes, the State renders competition 
very difficult to private initiative. The State not only gives its pupils 
education strictly so-called, but boards and lodges about half of them 
at an extremely low rate. The tuition fees vary from $12.00 to $80.00 
a year, according to the age of the pupil and the town he lives in. 
Board and lodging cost from $110.00 to $260.00 a year. The system 
of boarding scholars has often been attacked on moral and sanitaryf 
grounds ; it maintains its position, however, because it is democratic 
in the sense that it enables parents living at a distance from towns 
supplied with lycees and colleges to send their children to them. It 
has even been extended to the girls' colleges recently established. 
Most of the lycees receive both boarders and day-scholars, sometimes 
boarders only. 

In 1886 the number of pupils in schools for public secondary edu 
cation was estimated at about 100,000 — an increase of 20,000 on 
1876 — of whom 9,600 were girls, giving an average of 263 scholars 
per school. The exact figures for the scholastic year 1883-1 were as 
follows : 

*In 1887 the State was paying over three million francs (^600,000) in scholarships, 
without counting what the departments and the communes on their side often do. 
In 1883-1884 there were 4,662 holders of scholarships in secondary education ; to-day 
there are 2,000 in the higher grade primary schools, and some hundreds in the 
schools for higher education. 

f The chief charge brought against the boarding-school system from the sanitary 
point of view is that the children are not allowed sufficient time and space for phy- 
sical exercise. 



Industkial Education Commission. 



429 



Ly( e3s for boys, . 
Colleges for boys, 
Lyi63s for girls, 
Colleges for girls. 



No. of 
schools. 



Total No. of! Boarders, 
pupils. 



97 

257 

10 

13 



49,442 

41,000 

1,281 

1,656 



24,990 

16,212 

197 

405 



Day 

scholars. 



24,452 

24,788 

1,084 

1,251 



Exhibi- 
tioners. 



4,662 
1,919 



As regards the nature of the education given, the pupils were thus 
divided in 1886 : 





Primary edu- 
cation. 


Secondary, 

classical or 

scientitic 

education. 


Special edu- 
cation. 


Secondary 

education for 

girls. 


Boys' lyc63s, .... 
Boys' colleges, . . . 
Girls' lyce3s, .... 
Girls' colleges, . . . 


6,020 

9,213 

464 

869 


33,309 
18,139 


10,113 
13,647 


817 

787 








Totals, .... 


16,566 


51,438 


23,760 


1,604 



Free secondary schools m^y be opened subject to the production of 
certain certificates of capacity on the part of the director alone; the 
State then supervises the working from the point of view of public 
morality. It is calculated that tlie free Catholic institutions have 
about 48,000 pupils, with an average of 143 per establishment. The 
part taken by lay schools of the above character is inconsiderable. 

But an incomplete idea of the social importance of secondary edu- 
cation in France would be conveyed to the reader were the important 
part played by the baccalaureate ignored. The baccalaureate is an 
examination which young men have to undergo at the end ot their 
studies. It is not conducted, as in Germany, by a board of examiners 
chosen from the professors of the institution where the boy has been 
educated, but by professors of faculties — an arrangement which gives 
it a peculiar solemnity. The bachelor's diploma, given to candidates 
who have successfully passed through the written and viva voce tests 
of the examination, is not a simple certificate of studies, but a uni- 
versity degree, of inferior rank it is true, but which is indispensable 
for attendance at the courses of the higher education and for admit- 
tance to certain schools. Even where the production of this diploma 
is not compulsory its possession gives a formidable advantage in the 
various competitions in which its holders may be called on to take 
part. Hence arises a widely spread ambition among the middle classes 
to possess this diploma, and, unfortunately, many young men after 
obtaining it imagine themselves very learned, too learned even to 
embark upon commercial or industrial careers, which they think 
themselves entitled to qualify as vulgar. 



480 Eeport of the 

Till lately there have been three sorts of baccalaureate; the bacca- 
laiireat es lettres, which involves two examinations with a year's inter- 
val between; the complete baccalaureat-es-sciences, and the limited 
baccalaureat-es-sciences, this last named being more especially devoted 
to the natural sciences. The first is required for the study of law. the 
second or third for that of medicine, for instance. In 1883 out of 
16,124 candidates for the different baccalaureates, 3,597 obtained the 
diploma for literature, 2,628 the ''complete" science diploma, and 552 
the "limited" science diploma; the proportion of failures for each 
category respectively was 53.4*, 62.9 and 58.9 per cent. Of late efforts 
have been made to divert a portion of the French youth from the 
baccalaureate, and thus to avoid the overcrowding which results from 
it in the so-called liberal professions, to the disadvantage of trade and 
manufactures. With this object an attempt has been made to develop 
special secondary education ; unfortunately a fourth baccalaureate was 
devised to serve as its end and recompense, and, this baccalaureate 
once created, the obligation was felt and acted upon of insuring it cer- 
tain rights at the entrance of those very careers where there are too 
many young men already. It is a question which is occupying many 
minds in France at the present day, but which has not }■ et been deter- 
mined in a satisfactory manner. 

The recent progress of the country in this direction, is thus summed 
up by M. Jules Simon :f 

Within the last twenty-five years the system of primary instruction has under- 
gone a complete transformation ; instruction has been rendered obligatory; superior 
primary schools have been founded in every direction ; each department has 
either alone or in common with a neighboring department its normal scliool for 
male teachers, and another for female teachers ; liberty of higher education has 
been proclaimed ; secondary education for girls has been established ; a large sys- 
tem of appropriations has brought the highest grades of education within reach of 
all. Books, collections, apparatus of study and of work have been increased in vast 
proportions. At the same time the revenues have been considerably increased. 
France, Avhich had lagged behina most civilized nations, has resumed its place 
among the first. Probably no other nation at the present time is giving more atten- 
tion to these schools or expending more money for their supi^ort. This progress has 
noc been achieved without oj)position, and even in its present condition the system 
is not Avithout its enemies. 

Manual and Technical Training-. 

But France has not been content with creating a system of general 
education, comprehensive as we have just seen it to be. She has de- 
voted no less of zeal and intelligence to the establishment through- 
out the country of special technical instruction, either in connection 
with the public schools or in separate institutions. She has not only 
set herself to educate her people, but she has especially set herself to 

adapt that education to the needs of the present industrial era. Ever 

^__ • 

* At the first examination for the baccalaureat-es-lettres the proportion is 59.5 per 
cent. ; those who fail cannot present themselves for the second examination. 
fCondensed from Simon's ''L^ Ecole.'^ 



Indusi^ial Education CoMiftissioiir. 431 

since the establishment of the present republic, and especially since 
1878, many of the ablest minds in France have diligently occupied 
themselves with the question how best to broaden the basis of general 
knowledge and, at the same time, introduce into the schools a kind of 
training best adapted to prepare youth to become intelligent workers 
in industrial pursuits. This practical aim has dominated every step. 
When the bill for the establishment of sciiools of manual apprentice- 
ship (afterwards known as the law of December 11, 1880) was before 
the Senate, M. Tolain, the reporter of the bill and one of its mosr, 
earnest advocates, said, '• The value of the workman's labor in France 
is diminishing, because the intellectual value of the workman himself 
tends to decline. Machinery more and more takes the place of the 
workman. Such workmen as are still employed are more and more 
specialized and restricted to minute processes which are no longer a 
trade, but a fragment of a trade. There are continually fewer arlizans 
and more hand -workers. The remedy is, to give to the children of 
workmen an education capable of awakening in them the feelings 
which formerly prevailed among artizans ; first, to develop their in- 
telligence and then to increase their technical knowledge, so that they 
may be able, at need, to pass from one industrial specialty to another, 
to understand their trade as a whole and in its details, and sometimes 
even to improve its processes." Following this general view, the or- 
ganization of the system of manual training has received the most 
careful consideration. The subject was elaborated as a whole and in 
all its details by several very able commissions, and so strong a hold 
has it taken upon the public mind, that many leading statesmen 
have conspicuously identified themselves with the movement. 
Primary instruction is given in four kinds or grades of schools: 

1. Maternal schools and infant classes. 

2. Elementary primary schools. 

3. Higher primary schools, and higher classes in primary schools, 
called '' complementary courses." 

4. Manual apprenticeship schools. 

In all these schools, some form of manual training is required, under 
the law of March 28, 1882, and, while it has not yet been found possi- 
ble to carry out the law fully in all cases, especially in the smaller 
rural communities, the general scheme has been firmly established and 
long steps taken towards the universal introduction of it. The scope 
of the manual exercises will be best understood by an examination of 
the following programme presented by Senator Tolain's commission 
in 1881, as a part of the report then made to the minister of public 
instruction. 



432 Report of the 

PROGRAMME. 

INFANT SCHOOL. 

(Application and extension of ttie Frobel system. Education of the senses.) 

PRIMARY SCHOOL. 

(Manual exercises intended to develop the children's skill of hand.) 
Elementary class (7 and 8 years old). — 1 hour per day. 

Elementary exercises in freehand drawing, symmetrical arrangement of forms ; 
cutting out pieces of colored paper and applying them upon geometrical forms ; ex- 
ercises in coloring, cutting out geometrical forms in card board ; representations of 
geometrical solids. All these exercises to be done tirst on squared and subsequent- 
ly on plain paper. 

Small basket work. — Arrangement of strips of colored paper : First, in interwoven 
forms ; second, in plaited patterns 

Modelling. Reproduction of geometric solids and simple objects. 

Intermediate class (9 and 10 years old.) — 1 hour per day. 

Cutting out card-board patterns ; construction of regular geometric solids ; con- 
struction by the pupils of card-board models, covered with colored drawings or 
colored paper. 

Small basket work ; combinations of plaits ; basket making. 

Objects made of wire ; trellis or netting ; wire chain making. 

Combination of Avire and wood. Cages. 

Modelling simple architectural ornaments. 

Object lessons. Principal characteristics of wood and the common metals. 

Upper class {11 and 12 years.) — 2 hours per day. 

Drawing and modelling. Continuation of the exercises in the preceding class. 
Repetition of the ornaments previously executed, in the form of sketches, with di- 
mensions attached to them. Drawing the requisite sections for this purpose. Repro- 
ducing the sections as measured sketches. Study of the various tools used in work- 
ing wood. Hammer, mallet, chisel, gimlet, centre bit, brace, screw driver, com- 
passes, square, marking guage, saws of different kinds, jack plane, trying plane, 
smoothing plane, files and rasps, level. 

Theoretical and practical lessons on the above. 

Planing and sawing wood. Construction of simple joints. 

Boxes nailed together, or jointed without tacks. 

Wood lathe. Tools used in turning. Turning simple geometrical forms. 

Study of the tools used in working iron : Hammer, chisel, cutting tool, cold 
chisel, squares, compass, files, etc. Theoretical and practical lessons concerning 
them. 

Exercises in filing, smoothing and finishing rough forgings or castings (cubes, 
polygonal nuts). 

The practical w^ork in the shops in primary schools is to be followed by gymnastic 
exercises, in accordance with a special programme.* 

The superior primary school system of France owes its origin to Mr. Guizot, Avho 
effected its organization by the law of 1833. The various changes in the law from 
that time to the present have been made to meet the complex and changing needs 
of the classes for w^hose benefit this grade of education was inaugurated. These suc- 

*The programme includes manual work for girls. This is also arranged in three 
courses and comprises knitting, plain sewing and embroidery, to which are added 
in the elementary course manual exercises designed to develop dexterity, such as 
cutting out and fitting pieces of colored paper; first attempts at modelling. In the 
superior course, instruction is given in the elements of pomestic economy, with 
Ijractical applications to the kitchen, laundrj^ tlie house generally, the garden and 
>ard ; practical instruction is given in the school and at home. 



Industrial Education Commission. 433 

cessive changies in the law have led to corresponding alterations in the programmes 
promulgated from time to time ; and it is proper to regard the accompanying pro- 
gramme as a tentative rather than a final and permanent expression of the character 
of the education it is intended to give in this class of schools. ' 

SUPERIOR PRIMARY SCHOOL. 

The superior primary instruction given in the school will comprise the subjects 
specified in the following programme, as fixed by the ministerial decree of January 
15, 1881, for schools having a course extending over three years and more. 

Morals. — The principles of morals. Duties and rights of the citizen. Elementary 
principles of political economy. 

French language. — Methodical study of grammar and orthography. Etymology 
and derivation of words. Reading with proper emphasis and explanation of the 
meaning. Exercises in style and composition. Elements of the history of litera- 
ture. 

Writi7ig. — Principles and practice of running hand, round hand, and commercial 
handwriting. 

History. — Principal characters of antiquity. History of France up to the present 
day. Development of national institutions. Chief epochs of general history 
(ancient history, middle ages, and modern history). 

Geography. — Physical and political geography of the five quarters of the world. 
Special study of the geography of France, comprising the divisions for administra- 
tive purposes. Economic geography. Map drawing. 

Modern languages. — One modern language at least. 

MathematicSo — First year : Theoretical and practical arithmetic ; first elements of 
ordinary geometry. Second year : Advanced arithmetic ; elements of algebra ; plane 
geometry and its applications. Third and fourtli years : principles of algebra as ap- 
plied to the solution of simple equations ; the elementary principles of rectilinear 
trigonometry as applied to the estimation of triangles ; elementary principles of 
solid geometry and their application ; the common curves. 

Accounts. — First principles of commerce and account keeping; book-keeping; 
current accounts bearing interest. 

Physics. — The most important phenomena and the chief theories ot physics. 
Modern discoveries and the applications of science to daily life. 

Chemistry. — Exercises involving the observation and examination of some of the 
familiar facts introductory to the study of chemistry. The metalloids and the most 
useful metals. The laws of chemistry. The elements of organic chemistry. 

Natural history —Organs and functions of men and animals. Practical study of 
the principle groups of animals and vegetables. Application of hygiene to the local 
industries. Principal facts of geology and examination of the best known minerals. 

Draiving. — Geometrical drawing. Lines, plane surfaces, elements of tinting. 
Solids. Obtaining the points of intersection in penetrations of solids and projec- 
tions. Principles of perspective. Figured sketches. Essential parts of machinery 
and plans of buildings. Drawing Irom relief models and from the cast. 

Si7iging. — Choirs with three parts. 

Gymnastics. — Exercises in which all do alike. Exercises with apparatus. Military 
exercises. 

Note. — The subjects in this programme are to be apportioned over the three 
years' course so as to apply in the best way to the requirements of the professional 
instruction. 

PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION. 

First year {2 hours per day). — Supplement to the superior prinriary classes. 

Drawing and modelling. Execution of the regular geometric solids of given di- 
mensions from figured sketches. 

Workshop teaching : 
First period. — Working in wood. A box. A drawing board. A mortise and tenon, 
joint. An oblique joint. A slit and tongue joint. A joint halved together obliquely, 
A St. Andrew's cross. Various kinds of scarfed joints. 

28 Ed. Com. 



434 Report of the 

Second period. — Working in iron. Exercises with the file on an uneven piece of 
iron. Malie rectangular parallelopiped, with a square base of given dimensions. 
This is to be converted into an octagonal prism ; then into one with sixteen sides. 
This to be filed round. Then, in the lathe, to turn this into a cylinder of specified 
diameter, and finally to convert it into a hexagonal prism. 

Third period. — Working in wood. Various kinds of dovetail joints. Splices. 
Skew splices, halved together (two kinds). Scarfs halved with dovetail pieces. 

Fourth period. — Working in iron. Tool making. Two rules in iron of given di- 
mensions. Two plain squares. A pair of callipers. Exercises with the lathe and 
the cutting chisel. 

Second year. — Supplement to the superior primary classes. 

Drawing and modelling. Execution of a graduated series of ornamental casts 
composed of elements of solid geometry, arranged systematically ; rosettes, etc. 
Work i7i the shops (S hours per day): 

First period. — Working in wood. Mortise and tenon to molded work. Tenon for 
miter joint. Mortise and tenon with chamfered dovetail. Tongued joint with cross 
ties. Mortise and tenon for quoins. 

Second period. — Working in iron. An angle out of square. A pair of pointed 
compasses. A hand vise. 

Third period. — Working in wood. Angle open mortise joint. Slit and tongue 
joint in two thicknesses of stuff. Stepped mortise and tenon. Square joint of two 
cylinders. Oblique joint of two cylinders. A pair of screw clamps. 

Fourth period.— Working in iron. Bit pinchers. Screw wrench. Exercise with 
the lathe. Exercise with the cold chisel. 

Third year. — Supplement to the superior primary classes. 

Drawing and modelling. Elements of architecture. Orders and styles. 

Ornaments of the different orders and styles. 

Industrial drawing. Theoretical principles of composition and of the arrangement 
of colors. 

General principles of the application of drawing to pottery, to fret cutting in Avood 
and metal, to artistic locksmiths' work, and to the ornamental stamping of paper 
and fabrics. 

Chemistry. — Experiments in the laboratory. Manipulation. Analyses. Mode of 
fixing colors (applied to pottery, stuffs, etc.). 

Accounts— Industrial account keeping. Fixing of a scale of profits. Applying 
the same to the work of tools and simple machines. 

Work in the shops (5 hour, i per day during the first six months, and 7 hours daily 
during the last six months^: 

First period. — Working in wood. The making of tools. Molding block. Miter 
block. Wood bench clamp. Tenon saw. Small hand saw. Inlajdng saw. A plane. 
Use of the wood lathe. 

Second period. — Working in iron. The making of tools. A pair of steel squares, 
one of them to be a rim square. A tap wrench. Working with the cutting chisel. 

Third period. — Working in wood. The making of tools. A plane, jack plane, 
square, marking gauge, grooving plane. Work with the lathe. Model making. 

Fourth period. — Working in iron. Making a shifting gauge. Working at the 
forge. Elementary work. Making of tools, chisels, cross cut chisels, boring bits, 
etc. Working at the lathe and with the cutting chisel. 
Supplementary work in the shops : 

After the end of the third year's course the pupils may, if they request it, be main- 
tained at the establishment to work all day long in the shops throughout the holi- 
days. 

They will be paid wages for this work. 

It will be understood, of course, that in the primary schools this 
programme is interwoven w4th the studies of the usual course, which 



Industrial Education Commission. 435 

are not here given. For the superior primary school, both the literary 
and the prolessional courses are given. 

The course of this movement for the introduction of manual train- 
ing into the schools, including the protracted and many-sided discus- 
sions of means and methods, forms an extremely interesting and im- 
portant chapter in the history of educational progress ; but we must 
here content ourselves with a limited selection of such documents and 
statements as will most fully indicate the views of its leading promo- 
ters, and the successive steps by which they advanced to the attain- 
ment of their end. •• '• 

When the restored Republic of 1870 came into power there was^ 
already in existence an extensive and magnificent provision for nearly 
every branch of higher education, university and collegiate. Some 
provision had also been made for primary instruction, more or less 
under the legal authority of the Government, but mainly under the 
actual control of the clergy. The statesmen of the new regime vigor- 
ously took in hand the work of establishing a system of public schools, 
which should be freely open to children of all classes and conditions 
of society, free from clerical control, under the close direction and 
supervision of public officials, and wholly supported by public funds 
appropriated by the Nation, the Department or the Commune. 

The impulse in this direction did not, however, arise wholly from a 
sense of the importance of general education in a Republic. The 
Paris Exposition of 1878, was a revelation to the French people. 
They saw clearly from an examination of the exhibits made by other 
industrial nations that, if they were not to fall behind in the march 
of modern industry, they must infuse more of the modern spirit into 
their public schools. Since that time, and at equal pace with the 
growth of the general system, the apparatus for scientific and indus- 
trial education has been very greatly increased, and the extensive in- 
troduction of manual training into all grades of public instruction 
has been promoted as a means to the same end. It should be 
observed, however, and it will appear in the documents cited further 
on, that the aim of the whole movement has been economic and 
industrial even more than pedagogical. The problem has been, as 
stated to themselves by the leaders of French thought, how to train 
the youth of the country in such a way that all the powers, 
physical, intellectual and moral, of each child when he came to 
take his place in the ranks of active society, could be used with the 
highest efficiency. More narrowly still, the school was to prepare the 
road to the workshop ; and that, both by bringing the work-shop 
and its methods into the school and by carrying the school, with 
its principles, its methods, its intellectual habits forward into the work- 
shop. 

As to the needs of the situation there was little if any diflference of 
opinion, and as to the remedy, hardly more. The chief point in ques- 



436 Report of the 

tion was, whether manaal training as a means of education should be- 
come an integral part of the existing system, or be established under 
a separate system, financial and administrative. The former view pre- 
vailed. On- the 6th day of March, 1880, a very strong and important 
commission was appointed, with M. Corbon as president, to consider 
the whole subject. The commission divided itself into two sections, 
one under the chairmanship of Senator Oorbon, and the other under 
that of Senator Tolain, These reports present so clearly the consid- 
erations which influenced the subsequent legislation on the subject, 
that we cannot do better than to present them entire. 

The report made by Senator Corbon, is as follows : 

'^ '■Report to the Prefect of the Seine respecting manual exercises in the primary 
schools, considered as the Complement of Education, by A. Corbon, /Senator, re- 
porter of the Commission appointed to exaraine the double question of the work- 
shop in the school and the school in the ivorkshop.''^ 

Monsieur, the Pr6fet, you appointed, March 6, 1880, a commission for the investiga- 
tion of two correlative questions of the highest interest and the solution of which 
might well mark a happy revolution in the method of developing the moral, intel- 
lectual and physical force of the youthful generation. One of these questions is to 
ascertain whether it is necessary and in what measure it would be possible to organ- 
ize the workshop in the primary j school. The other is to know how the school can 
be continued in the workshop during the course of apprenticeship. 

The commission met a few days after its appointment and began its work. It has 
devoted many sittings to the examination and discussion of the two-fold question 
presented to it, and has unanimously agreed : (1) that it would be well to attach a 
workshop to every primary school, in order that the pupils might there obtain man- 
ual training ; (2) that there is room and need for the creation of apprenticeship 
schools, upon the plans of that already existing in Par'is on the Boulevard de La 
Vilette. (Ecole Diderot). After reaching this conclusion, the commission resolved 
itself into two parts, each to consider and report separately upon one of the questions 
proposed. The present report relates to primary schools. 

The full commission considered, at the out set, whether the introduction of man- 
ual training into the primary school ought to be regarded as a first grade of profes- 
sional instruction, or as the necessary completion of a rational education. It declared 
itself strongly in favor of this second view. It understood that the practical teach- 
ing of various trades in the primary school would be almost imposible. In order to 
give such instruction workshops would be required adapted to all, or at least to the 
principal industrial pursuits carried on in a city, which would require a plant three 
or four times larger than that occupied by the largest of our present school establish- 
ments. This consideration would not be absolutely conclusive if children, on leav- 
ing the primary school at twelve or thirteen years of age, after learning more or less 
fully the elements of a trade, could find employment in industrial establishments as 
workmen, or novitiate workmen, but their youth and their physical weakness 
would, in most cases, prevent this. They would inevitably be reduced to the ordi- 
nary condition of apprentices, employed in discouraging tasks for one and even 
two years ; that is to nay, long enough to lose the better part of what they had learned 
at school. No account would be taken of their professional preparation except in es- 
tablishments where the chief was exceptionally well disposed ; and it is not wise to 
base a calculation upon exceptions. 

The teaching of trades in the primary school would not be really profitable to the 
pupils unless they could remain there until the age when they were sufiiciently de- 
veloped physically and prepared professionally to enter at once as workmen into the 
shops. But it would be necessary to retain them at school three years longer, and 
for that purpose to quadruple, and even quintuple the extent of the school buildings. 
It is much more vsimple and more ra?tional to create establishments of a higher grade 



Industrial Education Commission. 437 

into which boys shall enter on leaving the primary school, and where for three years 
thej^ will receive a technical instruction at the same time that they complete their 
elementary knowledge, and from which they will go with force and skill sufficient 
to enable them to exercise their trade properly. They will thus have escaped the 
injurious intiuences undergone by children who are placed in work-shops too early. 

These considerations cannot be weakened by the example of what has been done 
for several years at the primary municipal school de la rue Tournefort. There the 
pupils are not confined to elementary manual exercises. An attempt is made to give 
instruction in very diflerent trades, but it can be done only upon a very small and 
insufficient scale, and, as boys cannot be retained there beyond their thirteenth year,, 
they are neither expert enough nor well enough developed to be employed immedi- 
ately in workshops outside unless in exceptional cases. Nevertheless the experi- 
ment undertaken in this school is extremely interesting. It shows to what degree 
boys from ten to twelve or thirteen years can exhibit taste and skill in manual ex- 
ercises without injury to their intellectual work. In fact quite the contrary is true. 
For this reason, if no other, this school would deserve to be encouraged as a special 
type. 

The question for the commission then is not to determine what it is possible to do 
in exceptional cases in a primary school, but to ascertain how the sj'-stem could be 
made general and enable the pupils of all schools to acquire that complementary 
education, which is the object of this report. The problem is how to introduce gen- 
erally into the primary schools those altogether elementary labors which every per- 
son ought to be capable of performing whatever his social position ; labors which are 
the foundation of all trades, which serve to develop manual skill, and are in a mul- 
titude of cases a means of awakening ingenuity at the same time that they are a pre- 
cious means of rendering service or of overcoming a difficulty. Moreover these 
elementary labors require neither a great supply of tools nor extensive room. They 
can accordingly be taught in all common district (Communaux) schools. The ques- 
tion no longer waits for a theoretical solution. It has been practically solved for 
several months in a certain number of municipal schools and has immediately given 
the most satisfactory results. The labors adopted as being most suitable are very 
simple, carpentry and wood-turning. Later it will be possible, if it should seem de- 
sirable, to add working in iron or any other metal. For the present, and profession- 
ally, the manual exercises are voluntary on the part of the pupil, and are carried on 
outside of class hours. Children are not admitted to the shop until after they are 
ten years of age, and it is worth noting here that those who are of an age to be ad- 
mitted show the greatest eagerness to attend, and labor with the most remarkable 
enthusiasm, giving in this way nearly three hours a day to this kind of instruction, 
beyond the regular class hours, and to the very great satisfaction of their friends. 
One part of the problem, however, remains to be solved : How could children from 
six to ten years of age take part in manual exercises without having to use tools for 
which they would not have strength and with which, besides, they might injure 
themselves ? That is to say, how can the exercises already begun in the intant 
school be continued in the primary school — certain instructive plays, certain manual 
exercises well adapted to the natural inclinations of the youngest age? The solution 
of this interesting part of the problem is at this moment being sought in schools al- 
ready provided with tools. The pupils old enough to be admitted to the workshop 
there prepare the materials for instructive plays for their younger fellow pupils. 

There will be plenty to do in this direction. The teachers will have to show as 
much active ingenuity as patient considerateness. They will need specially to aban- 
don the habit of correcting the uneasiness of children by automatic exercises for the 
whole body. It is a convenience without doubt to have recourse to automatism, but 
the school is not made for the convenience of the teachers. It is made for the best 
development of the various faculties of the pupils, and automatic exercises, often 
repeated, are a complete abandonment of its true aim. The teachers, however, are 
very generally animated by the most active desire to do well. They will clearly un- 
derstand and will zealously perform the duties which the new system of education 
imposes upon them. They will grow in value by the efforts the}^ are forced to make 
and this will be a clear gain for the youth entrusted to their care. 



438 Report of the 

M. le Pr6fet: " The task of the reporter is still only half completed. It remains 
to point out the imperative necessity of making the comj^lementary education, 
Avhich has just been spoken of, beneficial to the whole body of the youthful gener- 
ations. If it were merely a question of introducing manual training into the pri- 
mary school, in order to prepare the children of the people for a life of labor from 
early youth, one might be content with the foregoing considerations and sugges- 
tions, but to work out and apply a system of education exclusively adapted to the 
children of the people (working classes), which should not be suitable to those of 
the middle class, would be going in direct opposition to the democratic spirit, and 
would perpetuate the moral and intellectual separation between these two great 
social elements. Still further, there is reason to hope that the day will soon come 
when the primary grade of instruction will no longer be given in the Lycees, and 
when children of every social condition will be required to begin their education on 
the benches of the primary school. Not only does the democratic principle require 
this community of education, but a social interest of the first importance demands, 
it. The mingling of the children of the middle classes with those of the working 
classes {peuple), will have the happiest results. It would be the most important 
means of nurturing sentiments of good-fellowship among youth of Yevy diverse 
conditions, and will check at their source those dividing sentiment which have al- 
ready produced deplorable effects and may produce still more deplorable ones. But 
aside from the great interest there would be in giving primary instruction in only 
one kind of schools, and for children of every social position, it should be well 
borne in mind that the complement of education, which forms the object of this re- 
port, and which has been already provided in a certain number of schools, should 
be made to extend to the whole body of youth. For a long time little attention has 
been paid in education to the physical being. It was w^ith great difficulty that public 
opinion secured the introduction of gymnastic exercises. It seemed not to be un- 
derstood that the intellectual, moral and the physical capacities are closely conjoined 
in one system, so closely conjoined that if either remained neglected the others were 
prevented from exhiloiting their full force. How, indeed, could the moral forces 
produce their effects without the aid of intelligence and of the arms ? What could 
the intellect do in a multitude of cases without the aid of the hand ? Yet, even to 
this day, education is conducted as if it were not true that the arm is the indispensable 
auxiliary of the intellect and the heart ; as if the hand, the intellect and the heart 
were disconnected, and, consequently, as if no attention need be paid to the cultiva- 
tion of the three orders of faculties. Thence comes a defective education based 
upon a false principle ; a kind*of voluntary infirmity which renders so many people 
incapable of doing anything with their hands. And yet the cultivation of the phys- 
ical capacities, joined to cultivation of the intelligence and the feelings, has never 
been so necessary as in our time. The present century is one of prodigious activity, 
of gigantic labors, of unheard of daring in the field of enterprise, of everything 
which demands intellectual vigor associated with physical force and manual skill. 
Moreover, society at the present time is preoccupied with the improvement of ed- 
ucation for the new generations in order that they may have in full exercise their 
moral, physical and intellectual forces. ** ******* 

From a logical point of view the question is clear ; from the moment when the 
solidarity of the three orders of faculty is admitted it is absolutely necessary to pro- 
vide for their joint development. The natural tendencies of children point in the 
same direction as clearly as possible. From the time that the child is able to stand, 
and even before, he wishes to touch everything. He early endeavors to do some- 
thing with his hands, he desires tools, he wishes to handle them long before he is 
able to use them ; he needs at least a little shovel to work in the earth, a bucket to 
carry it; he plants imitation trees, he builds and then overthrows his buildings 
in order to build them again in another way or in another place. In this most 
people see nothing except the child's way of keeping himself in motion, but such 
people having eyes see not. and having intelligence, do not understand. Th.ej do 
not see and understand that in these instinctive manifestations of the young being 
the future worker reveals himself. In truth it is nature that speaks, proclaiming 
in the child the destiny of the man, and his duty, or at least a part of his duty, in life. 



Industrial Education Commission. 439 

Education should be conformed to this course of nature universally and constantly- 
expressed, or it rests upon false principles. 

It is high time to understand the indications furnished by the instinct of children 
and to give as soon as possible satisfaction to their two-fold need of working with the 
hands and of knowing the reason of things, that is to say, it is time to biing about a 
veritable revolution in the manner of raising youth. If one wishes to follow reso- 
lutely the course of nature and the clear indications furnished by the instinctive 
dispositions of children, if manual exercises are considered as essential, they should 
have a serious part in education commensurate with their importance. In the 
end it will be found that it is possible to shorten the time of class work in order to 
give a sufficient amount of time to manual exercises, and that this will be done not 
only without injury to the intellectual development, but that on the contrary it will 
promote it. In the first place manual exercises are not carried on without awaken- 
ing the intelligence, and still further, it is doing violence to the active nature of the 
children to confine them three hours in succession, twice a day, before the school 
desk. They submit, but with reluctance; they are subject to constraint; they 
are ill at ease physically and morally. They would certainly learn better in two 
hours if the third were given to manual exercises. It should be observed also, in 
order to obtain more time for the exercises of the workshop, that there is a tendency 
in primary education, as well as in secondary and higher, to overload the programme 
of study more and more. It seems as if the aim were less to develop the intellectual 
capacity than to heap up knowledge upon knowledge in the head of the children at 
ihe risk of exhausting the intellectual force. This tendency is most injurious, but 
we hasten to say that already many important men, educational .officials, have per- 
ceived that they were going by a false path, and are show^ing themselves disposed 
to make a change. Whenever the conviction shall become general that it is abso- 
lutely necessary at every stage to train the physical capacity, the manual faculties, 
from that day the programme of studies will be necessarily rearranged. Ability to 
use the hands is hardly less important to the sons of the middle class than to those of 
the working class. Indeed, there are many learned professions which demand a 
certain manual skill on the part of their practitioners. It is required for surgeons, 
architects, civil engineers, engineering officers, artillery officers, nayal officers. All 
of these need to know how to work. The same is true of inventors who are so often 
prevented from profiting by their ingenuity because they cannot put their invention 
into tangible form. Even literary men themselves, and all men whose profession is 
purely intellectual, would be fortunate in many cases to lind relaxation for the mind 
in manual exercises and in executing certain useful works. This is for all men a 
natural need. It must needs be satisfied, and the level of the general capacity will 
be made higher by so much. 

To conclude, the complement of education, which is here considered, is desired by 
nature itself. It is desired by the general public sentiment, and required as a means 
of responding to the inventive and transforming genius of modern society ; and, 
finall}^, it is required by the solidarity of the faculties of the human being. Let us 
add, that it will be impossible to point out any disadvantages in it, but that, on the 
contrary, it possesses nothing but advantages. 

A. CORBON. 

The foregoing report of Senator Corbon has not before been trans- 
lated into English, so far as we are informed. Senator Tolain's report, 
which follows, has been reprinted by the British Royal Commission 
on Technical Instruction, and by the United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion. We borrow here the translation of the former : 

Monsieur Le Prefet : 

Sir : This (second) sub-commission was appointed to examine into the question 
of Apprenticeship Schools, and they unanimously recognized the necessity for 
establishing these useful institutions. 

Various causes have, since the year 1789, successively contributed to lower the 
standard of technical knowledge and of manual dexterity among workmen. For- 



440 Eeport of the 

merly the classes organized by each trade association, and the execution of certain 
"master-pieces," which required both from the journeymen and from the master, 
constituted a system of true technical instruction, which, however, disappeared 
with the revolution. 

In some trades, it is true, the status of "journeyman" survives, but it has been, 
and still is, steadily on the decline; industrial changes and facilities of intercom- 
munication are graduallj^ tending to its total abandonment throughout France. 

Division of labor, meanwhile, has become more developed every day, increasing 
the number of "specialties," until each operation is reduced to a trade of itself. 
Finally, the steam engine has conduced to the establishment of large factories, 
where the machine tool plays the most important part, machine work gradually re- 
placing hand-labor and transforming the artisan into a specialist and the workman 
into a laborer. Such then are the causes which, to the great regret of our manufac- 
turers, are steadily diminishing the number of skillful and intelligent workmen 
in all branches of industry and art manufacture. 

Again, the workshops where private industries are conducted no longer, except 
in a few rare instances, adopt the system of a true apprenticeship. The majority of 
manufacturers have given np taking apprentices ; the lads they employ are set to a 
special class of work, often of the most insignificant kind ; receive renumeration 
from the first ; and, by mutual consent of the parents and employer, the contract of 
apprenticeship is abandoned for one of hire. 

A revolution of this nature in the methods of production threatens above all the 
prosperity of French industry, and more particularly the welfare of that of Paris. 

Among the trades and handicrafts, embracing art applied to industry and to ob- 
jects of luxury, owing to the applications of science and the employment of machine 
tools, the articles produced assume a uniformity of character which diminishes, in 
a marked manner, their artistic value, and facilitates foreign piracy and imitation. 

The Germans, the Belgians, the Americans, discover by means of new systems of 
working, and by the aid of improved tools, a means of appropriating to themselves, 
with little expense, patterns, the production of which has often been very costly to 
our manufacturers. 

These disadvantages are equally serious from a moral point of view. The work- 
man, deprived of the most noble part of his calling (the creative portion of the work 
being from henceforth reserved for the engineer and the artist), his own ideas dis- 
pensed with, reduced to mere imitation, and condemned to labor of the most me- 
chanical kind, tails by degrees into a species of mental sloth which renders him 
unfit for any intellectual effort. Labor soon becomes to him subjection to an aim- 
less toil, from which he, too frequently, seeks to escape. 

In view of this condition of affairs the Commission recognized that what was 
needed was not a system of technical education in favor of a privileged few, des- 
tined to become foremen or managers of works, but to raise the standard of theoieti- 
cal and practical technical knowledge among all classes of workmen. 

The Commission, having in view a generalized system of education applicable to 
both boys and girls, had to consider the financial aspect of the question. Doubtless 
it is the business of the municipal council to lemove the inherent difficulties in the 
way of establishing new institutions, in accordance with the State of its finances ; 
but, notwithstanding the great resources of the city of Paris, it is evident that we 
must proceed gradually, and the method to be adopted is not a matter of indiffer- 
ence. 

In the first place we were enabled to establish the fact that the various industries 
carried on in Paris may be divided into two great categories, viz : Parent industries 
and special industries. It is certain, for instance, that, for working in wood and 
iron, a systematic education, both theoretical and practical, would give to a lad 
leaving a municipal apprenticeship school, such as the school of La Vilctte, the op- 
portunity of following several trades and specialties ; whilst on the other hand, 
workmen in such important industries in the clothing trades, as tailors, shoemakers, 
hatters, etc., are confined to their own respective special branches. 

Now it is more particularly in the parent industries, comprising various trades or 
specialties, having numerous points of resemblance, the work in which is of a simi- 



Industrial Education Commission. 441 

lar character, and renders necessary to a great extent, the same class of tools, that 
the system of apprenticeship is gradually disappearing ; whilst employers are 
powerless to remedy the evil, however sincere may be their desire to do so. For 
these great industries, the only means of raising the standard of technical knowl- 
edge is the establishment of apprenticeship schools. 

With these facts before us, a difficulty, however, still remained to be overcome. 
So long as hand labor, or speaking more accurately, the handling of the princii3al 
tools, forms no part of the education given in elementary schools, the apprentice- 
ship schools will, in a great measure, be recruited in a haphazard way, since no 
opportunity will have been afforded for discovering the natural aptitudes of the 
pupils and determining their future vocations. Thus the education, however well 
organized, will not give such results as might otherwise reasonably be expected. 

Without such preparation it is impossible to discover whether the pupil is spe- 
cially fitted for work requiring precision or taste, for trades necessitating mathemat- 
ical knowledge or artistic feeling. This difficulty is destined to be overcome by de- 
grees, in proportion as manual work becomes extended in the workshops annexed 
to elementary schools (and by this means we shall certainly be able to shorten the 
erm of apprenticeship by one year) ; this difficulty, however, must be encountered 
at the beginning, and may give rise in some minds, to doubts as to the real value of 
the education to be obtained in apprenticeship schools. 

Without departing from the principle already laid down, the Commission proposes 
to group together in the same apprenticeship school a certain number of trades ; the 
programme of the school, whilst giving the same instruction during the first year 
to all the apprentices, would, in the second year, enable them to apply themselves 
specially either to works of precision or to those requiring artistic taste. 

Inspired with this idea, the Commission proposes, by way of example, to establish 
an apprenticeship school for the furniture trades in the Faubourg St. Antoine, which 
would produce workers in wood who, according to their natural aptitudes, would 
take up either the trade of a carpenter, a cabinet-maker, upholsterer, wood-carver, 
inlayer, etc. ; and workers in iron, who would become lock-smiths, men skilled in 
metal work lor cabinet-makers and artistic lock makers. This example we consider 
sufficient to indicate the object to be aimed at with regard to each large branch of 
Parisian industry, viz: The grouping together of trades, which at the commence- 
mient of the apprenticeship, would require the same theoretical and manual instruc- 
tion, and would permit of the distribution, by successive selections of the appren- 
tices in accordance with their aptitudes, amongst the trades which involve more es- 
pecially the knowledge of science or of art. Such is the system which the Commission 
proposes to adopt for the present industries. 

It remained to determine what should be the conditions of admission to the new 
establishment. It was unanimously resolved that the admission should be abso- 
lutely free. A question then arose concerning the necessary qualification. Two 
plans were proposed ; the first was that only those pupils should be admitted to the 
schools who held a certificate of primary studies ; the second only required the 
student to pass a special examination of a very elementary character. 

Is it, indeed, certain, asked the partisans of the examination plan, that the certifi- 
cate can be regarded as a guarantee of capacity for the exercise of a handicraft ? 
Assuredly not ; all the faculties do not follow the same general groove. Although 
there maybe some so constituted that they can do nothing Avithout having first mas- 
tered the reasons for their actions, there are many, in fact by far the greater propor- 
tion, who should begin by i^ractice and not by theory. This is especiall}^ true in 
matters of education, where we often proceed from sensations to thoughts, from par- 
ticular iacts to general laws, to return later from the rule to its application. 

To require the certificate of primary studies would be to limit the number of com- 
petitors, and to reserve these new schools for the children of the less needy classes, 
for those whose parents have been able to keep them at the elementary schools until 
they obtained their certificate. 

All men, however, who had specially interested themselves in the question of 
elementary education were unanimous in declaring the beneficial results arising 
from the system of certificates. If the certificate were not made obligatory for ad- 



442 Report of the 

mission into the apprenticeship schools, competent judges feared that the spirit of 
emulation would be weakened. That this distinction is a powerful stimulus to ex- 
ertion is proved by the fact that the number of certificates distributed yearly is 
always increasing. These reasons appeared conclusive, and the obligatory produc- 
tion of the certificate was adopted by the commission. 

According to the calculations of a member of the commission, Mr. C. Lucas, an 
architect who is fully competent to form an opinion, and who has devoted himself 
with the utmost attention to this question, it appears that the cost of establishing an 
apprenticeship school (without reckoning the site) would amount to a sum varying 
from ^360 to $400 per apprentice, according as the number of apprentices varied from 
one hundred to three hundred. It is necessary to observe that, in the opinion of 
the commission, and according to Mr. Lucas' plans, the class-rooms and amphithe- 
atres could be so arranged as to accommodate a number of students attending eve- 
ning classes, double that of the apprentices. 

The special reports appended to the present one, concerning, the three schools for 
boys which the commission proposes to establish, contain detailed and precise in- 
formation relating both to the programme to be followed and to the apparatus re- 
quired. From these it would appear that, for the supply of both large and small 
tools, an average outlay of from |10 to |14 per api^rentice would be necessary, ac- 
cording to the trade. Finally, the accounts of the school at La Vilette show that the 
annual expenditure will amount to $50 per apprentice. 

As regards special trades the commission is of opinion that the manufacturers 
should themselves take the initiative, and it observes with satisfaction that in several 
industries the employers have not awaited its advice, but have, in some instances 
already established, or are ready to establish, workshops for apprentices, whilst 
others are engaged in organizing classes to supplement the practice obtained in the 
workshop wdth theoretical instruction. In such cases, alter having taken into con- 
sideration the programme adopted by the founders, and after having examined the 
guarantee given for the organization. of a sound apprenticeship, the municipal coun- 
cil might come forward with a grant, on condition that its supervision were accepted 
and made efficacious, and that the apprentices were selected from among the pupils 
who had passed through the workshop attached to the elementary school. 

In the case of schools for boys, the commission has confined its labours to three 
schemes. .It would, indeed, have no farther interest in continuing its enquiries if 
the municipal council were not to agree in principle to the proposed system. 

The first would be a school of furniture and locksmith's work, situated in the 
Faubourg St. Antoine, comprising workshops for carpentry, cabinet-making, inlay- 
ing, chair-frame making, wood carving, builders' ironwork, cabinet lock, artistic 
lock making, &c. (Report of M. Coughny.) 

The second would be a school for engineers and wood-workers, to be established 
on the left bank of the Seine, after the model of the school of La Vilette, but with 
certain additions which would permit of a larger field of instruction. These addi- 
tions would comprise stone-cutting and working, timber construction, foundry 
work, also iron and tin-plate working, roofing and plumbing ; which would make 
of this school a thorough apprenticeship school for the building trades. (Report of 
Mr. Henry Lepaute.) 

The third, to be situated in the centre of Paris, would combine the following 
specialties : scientific instruments, optical and mathematical instruments, tele- 
graphic apparatus, small machinery, clock making, surgical instruments, &c. (See 
Mr. Bourbouze's report, specially relating to scientific instruments.) 

The commission would have accomplished but half its task if it had not consid- 
ered the question of apprenticeship schools for girls ; but as women's work does not 
present such diversity and so many complications as men's work, Messieurs E. 
Ferry, de Heredia, Marienval and Charles Lucas, who have especially occupied 
themselves with this question, have drawn up one general programme which might 
be adopted in various quarters of Paris. (See data relating to the apprenticeship 
school for girls, collected by Mr. Charles Lucas.) 

The Commission, as you will perceive from its report, wishes to make this ap- 
prenticeshiiD school a school also for domestic training. Girls going into workshops 



INDUSTRIAL Education Commission. 443 

at an early age accustom, themselves afterwards only with much difficulty to dom- 
estic duties, and further, owing to the want of elementary knowledge of these sub- 
jects, they are unfitted to undertake them. We hope that the programme proposed 
will improve this condition of things. 

The educational authorities {'■' Direction de V Enseignemenf'') have transmitted 
to us several other schemes for the establishment of apprenticeship schools, but as 
they difl'er too widely from the plan adopted, by the Commission, we have, notwith- 
standing their undoubted merit, been unable to recommend them. 

The same may be said of the private workshops for which a grant was asked from 
the municipal council. 

In concluding, we have to tender our thanks to the officers of public instruction, 
who, by their intelligent zeal, have, in conjunction with the municipal council, suc- 
ceeded in establishing the first apprenticeship school of the city of Paris, viz.. The 
Municipal School for Apprentices in the Boulevard de la Tilette. This school, like 
all new institutions, encountered certain difficulties at the beginning which were 
fortunately overcome. 

The experience thus acquired ought to be made use of in establishing the new in- 
stitutions, and we may, therefore, add the following remarks : 

The majority of the children going into the apprenticeship schools will belong to 
parents with large families. Under these circumstances, good-will alone on the part 
of the parents will not suffice to maintain the apprentice for three years without any 
remuneration whatever. It happens too often that a good apprentice, belonging to 
a poor family, may be compelled to quit the apprenticeship school at tlie end of the 
first or the second year, that is, as soon as he has received sufficient instruction to 
enable him to earn something at a trade. 

Industry would in this manner be supplied with imperfectly trained workmen in 
spite of the considerable sacrifices undertaken by the city of Paris. For these rea- 
sons, therefore, and prompted by the experience gained at the school of La Yilette, 
the Commission deem it desirable to point out how the evils of a premature with- 
drawal from the apprenticeship school may be averted. 

From the beginning of the second year the school might furnish gratuitously to 
all, or to a certain number of the apprentices, the mid-day meal, and in the third 
year add a small weekly remuneration. If the resources of the school permitted of 
this, a savings bank book, or a fixed sum, might be allowed to the apprentice, either 
to assist him till he can earn his living in a factory, or to enable him to provide him- 
self with tools in the cases where this expense falls upon the workmen. 

If the ideas herein set forth should be of value to the development and progress of 
industry, the Commission, Monsieur le Prgfet, will have to thank you sincerely for 
the opportunity that has been afforded to it of being useful to its country. 

A. ToiiAiN (Senator.) 

It will be observed that the foregoing reports deal respectively with 
two distinct phases of the subject : its feasibility and desirableness, 
first, as a branch of training in connection with the ordinary studies 
of the primary schools, with pupils ranging from 6 or 7 to 13 years of 
age; second, as a special branch of what is now, in France, generally 
called " professional" instruction, carried on in separate establish- 
ments, under the joint control of the departments of Public Instruc- 
tion and of Commerce and Industry, and having an educational as 
well as a technical or industrial aim. 

The term "primary" schools as used in the French system has a 
more extended meaning than in the United States. There it desig- 
nates, in general, the entire range of compulsory public education. 

When the pupil has completed this " primary " course, he (or she) 
is at liberty to begin the occupations of life, or to enter a " superior 



444 Kepokt of the 

primary school," or " a manual school of apprenticeship "^-both of the 
latter being, however, in the eye of the law '' primary " schools but 
something more. To such a school no one is admitted without a cer- 
tificate showing that he has completed the " primary " studies pre- 
scribed by law. The course continues three years. The first year is 
devoted to a continuation of the principal branches of previous study, 
and to a course of training in the elementary branches of working 
in wood and iron. During the second and third years, the educational 
studies are continued and the '•professional" studies become more 
specialized,including the elements of various trades, as cabinet making, 
harness making, watch making, jewelry, etc., etc. The courses of train- 
ing are based upon the idea that youth, at the age of 11 to 13 required ior 
admission, can profitably choose and enter upon a fixed employment, 
without unlearning everything else ; that they can become virtually 
apprentices without ceasing to be pupils ; that, with a proper distri- 
bution of time, they can acquire the practical training of workmen 
without losing the intellectual habits which form the man. Such in- 
stitutions are designed to be at once schools and workshops; mainly 
schools at first, but more and more workshops as the course advances. 

While they are " manual schools of apprenticeship," they have not 
in view apprenticeship to a special trade, so much as so secure the 
dexterity and the technical knowledge necessary for youth who are 
destined to engage in any of the manual professions. These schools 
are mostly established and supported by the municipalities under the 
supervision and with the aid of the National Government. 

The working of the system in its various branches is best shown, of 
course, in the city of Paris. What is being done there was very fully 
shown in a paper entitled "Professional Instruction in the City of 
Paris, read by M. Desmoulins, before the Congress International 
ay ant pour ohjet V Enseignement Technique^ etc.^ held at Bordeaux, 
September, 1886," of which we give here a translation : 

" My purpose is to make you acquainted with the actual state of 
industrial, commercial and technical instruction in Paris and in the 
Department of the Seine. I have some right to occupy you with this 
subject since I belong to the Municipal Council of Paris, and the 
council general of the same, and am the reporter of the Budget 
relating to instruction. It is a difiicult matter, and it will be necessary 
for me to cite figures. In this, I ask your indulgence. The city of 
Paris has an annual budget of instruction which is not less than 
25,000,000 francs. This budget includes all the expenses of public 
instruction of the city of Paris, but most of these expenses have a 
very great utility in respect to industrial, commercial and technical 
instruction, so that in speaking of them I shall not for a moment 
depart from the principal question which is presented' to us. At 
Paris, primary instruction is given in the following establishments : 

126 maternal schools. 



Industrial Education Commission. 445 

17 infant schools. 

174 primary schools for boys. 

175 primary schools for girls, making a total of 492 schools for 
primary instruction, in which about 145,000 pupils are taught. The 
personnel charged with this instruction includes not less than 3,000 
members. About 1,500 men and 1,500 women. The appropriation 
required for their payment is about 9,500,000 francs. The maternal 
schools have succeeded the ancient Asiles which were only refuges. 
The most of these schools are now provided with FroebePs apparatus. 
Lessons in things are there given, which are in many respects a tech- 
nical instruction. Singing and drawing are taught. One of the in- 
spectors of drawing, M. Ottin, the eminent sculptor, has already in- 
troduced into a number of these schools exercises which are a verita- 
ble gymnastic for the eye, the thought and the hand, and which 
familiarize the pupils little by little with those elements of drawing 
which will permit them later to attain the '' writing of form." There 
can be seen at this moment in Paris, at the Exposition of Decorative 
Arts, copy books and show cases filled with drawings of little boys 
and girls from 6 to 8| years of age, very remarkable for ingenuity, 
steadiness of hand and originality. I think manufacturers could 
make use of some of them for stuffs, embroideries, etc. My colleague, 
M. Chabert, will speak to you presently of the services which these 
elementary exercises render to our education. Of the 174 boys' 
schools, 95 are already provided with workshops — 90 for wood work, 
and 5 for iron. It is not the purpose there to teach trades. The 
design is to give the pupils a primary technical instruction in order 
to secure them a general and practical knowledge of materials and 
lools. I regret that similar shops are not yet established in all the 
schools. Up to the present time these workshops have been used 
outside of school hours. The work was performed in the morning 
before the beginning of the classes, and in the evening after their 
close. The inconvenience of this system struck the department 
council of public instruction, which has just arranged the basis of a 
new distribution of time according to which the manual tasks will 
take place in the daytime, and will become a part, in the same way 
as gymnastics, of the regular studies of the school. This new schedule 
is to be applied very soon, and the city of Paris will find itself ob- 
liged for this purpose to provide shops for 79 boys' schools which do 
not yet possess them. I would wish you to observe carefully the 
necessity of placing tools in the hands of our children. This gives 
opportunity for a multitude of practical demonstrations which belong 
to science, but which do not present science under the abstract form 
which the child often fails to understand. The question has been 
asked whether it is well to introduce elementary workshops into the 
school, but their utility has been recognized. We hope that the city 
of Paris will establish shops in the 174 boys' schools. For the girls 



440 Report of the 

the thing is more simple. The law of 1882, at the same time that it 
introduced elementary labor into the schools for boj^s, introduced cut- 
ting and fitting into all the schools for girls. The result is that the 
175 of which I speak are veritable little shops of cutting and fitting. 

1 now come to speak of infant schools of which the city of Paris 
has 17. Little children are there taught the elements of knowledges 
which will be useful to them later. There is nothing more delightful 
than to watch the eagerness of these little children in their exercises. 
They fashon objects which later will have an industrial utility. The 
children question their teachers, and immediately obtain responses. 
They are delighted. They are happy at school and when any cir- 
cumstance prevents their attendance they are greatly distressed. 

When these little children go from the maternal school to enter the 
primary school, they find themselves restricted by the great number 
of their companions, by a discipline, a silence, a stiffness which have 
nothing in common with what they have seen in the maternal school. 
By means of these 17 infant schools, municipal council has intended 
to fill up the gap which exists between the maternal school and the 
primary school. These schools are directed by women. Pupils are 
received from 6 to 9 years of age, and an important service is rendered 
to them. The methods of the maternal school are there continued 
in a certain degree. The intelligence of the children begins to de- 
velop, their memory is made more sure, their judgment is formed. 
It is said : " These children will regard a woman as beneath their little 
dignity," but the experiment has completely succeeded. Women 
have gifts* for instruction which men acquire with difiiculty. Our 17 
infant schools already render such services that the question is raised 
whether it will not be feasible to entrust to women the entire ele- 
mentary course of the primary schools. * * * * Our existing 
system of education is made of pieces and morsels. It is important 
that it be reduced finally to a single plan. 

Thus, with the exceptions indicated, and which are about to disap- 
pear, the city of Paris has now established technical instruction in all 
its primary schools. See, now, what it has done for a more advanced 
grade. In the first place comes the College RoUin, a city college in 
which are taught the subjects which appear in the programme of the 
University. We may say that the College Rollin is a State College. 
The only privilege the city has is to pay the expenses. The direction 
of it belongs to the University. 

The College Chaptal is more a city college. There we prepare a 
great number of young people for commerce. Some go to the poly- 
technic school ; two or three have been received there this year. 
Forty-five or forty-six of the students have been graduated as bache- 
lors of science or bachelors of letters this year. These two colleges 
instruct about 2,400 youth. 



Industrial Education Commission. 447 

I come now more particularly to the Superior Primary Schools, 
namely: The Turgot, Colbert, Lavoisier, J. B. Say and Arago. 

The better scholars of the Primary Schools are admitted gratuitously 
to the Superior Primary Schools. These schools are in many res- 
pects professional schools. There are prepared especially commei- 
cials and employes. In the Turgot, there are 810 pupils ; in the Col- 
bert, 714; in the Lavoisier, 480 ; in the J. B. Say, 683; in the Arago, 
476 ; making for all these schools about 3,163 boys. Paris has also a 
superior primary school for girls, which counts not less than 280 
pupils (Rue de Jouy). The most of our schools, except the Rollin, 
have workshops for manual labor. This preparation is useful, for the 
greater number of our pupils devote themselves later to those indus- 
trial arts which form the principal wealth of Paris. Moreover, it is 
for us of the highest importance in a moral point of view, to accustom 
all our youth to labor, and to direct them toward careers which might 
otherwise be called menial. It is not for nothing that so experienced 
a city as Paris endeavors to destroy in their sources the causes of un- 
easiness, by showing to all the Parisian youth that they are summoned 
to the great honor of contributing, by laborious activity, to all which 
can elevate the nation. It is time at last to elevate labor to the 
height which it ought to occupy. 

I come now to the course for adults. The city maintains courses 
for adults and commercial courses. The former are taken at Paris by 
less and less numbers. The commercial courses on the other hand 
render services which the public appreciates more fully day by day. 
It is necessary to note also courses maintained by various societies of 
instruction — polytechnic, philotechnic, etc., which are supported with 
great eagerness by the Parisian youth. Accordingly, the Municipal 
Council each year diminishes the sums appropriated to the adult 
courses, and increases those for the commercial courses, and for the 
public societies. Instruction in drawing costs the city of Paris almost 
1,000,000 francs. I recognize, however, that this instruction does not 
produce all the results to be desired. The professors are men of 
ability. They are mostly animated by the most laudable zeal, but 
they rightly complain of defective methods in the succession of 
classes. In reality, they give their instruction in the principal courses 
of the primary schools, but too large a number of their pupils have 
received in the elementary instruction and secondary courses only a 
too incomplete, and, in the majority of cases, badly directed prepa- 
ration. The result is a notable loss of time and effort. I ought to 
add that by force of ability and perseverance the professors, in spite 
of these obstacles, obtain remarkable results. The workmen's expo- 
sition, and the exposition of the arts applied to industry, enable the 
public to judge of this progress. Works produced in the day classes, 
and in the evening courses are there exposed. The articles produced 
by the scholars of the courses of the Rue Sainte-Elisabeth, and of the 



448 Keport of the 

Municipal School for the application of the fine arts to industry — 
Rue des Petits-Hotels — attract attention everywhere. This last school 
includes four shops : 1. for pottery ; 2. for wood-cutting and stone- 
cutting ; 3. design on materials, stuffs, etc. ; 4. decorative painting. 
Thus, in these schools, the young people who labor in the workshops 
all day can in the evening pursue the course of the history of art. 
They are taught the elements of the difi'erent arts applied to industry. 
For example: what was a vase among the Greeks; what it became at 
the Renaissance. The professor draws upon the board the outline of 
the object ; the pupils copy it in their albums and note the explana- 
tions given. One may then say to these young people: "make a 
wash basin, an ink stand, or any industrial object whatever." They 
are directed as to the epoch which they are to represent, and are then 
left absolutely free. I have seen compositions thus made. Not only 
did the drawing recommend itself by its conception and skill, but still 
iurther it was marked and ready for execution. In the presence of 
such results, the city of Paris has desired to place within reach of 
laboring youth schools which should be open by day. This is the case 
with the school for the application of fine arts to industry. Rue des 
Petits-Hotels. The city of Paris has shown thus how much it had at 
heart the great interests of industry and of commerce. 

I come now to schools of apprenticeship. At the head of them 
stands the school of physics and chemistry, which comprises 90 pupils, 
30 for each year. The pupils receive a monthly grant of 50 francs. 
The city is recompensed for these sacrifices, and industry already en- 
joys services rendered by the specialists sent irom these schools. 

Next comes the Municipal School, Diderot, The circumstances 
under which this school was founded are not, I think, suflBciently 
known. Give me leave to recall them. The jury of the Universal 
Exposition of 1867, had agreed that the quality of the productions of 
French industry was undergoing a decline which could only be at- 
tributed to the failure of apprenticeship. A remedy was sought. 
The municipal commission of the city of Paris voted a prize of 250 
francs for each young workman who had fulfilled the requirements 
of a contract of apprenticeship of 3 or 4 years. Do you know in 
what proportion these prizes have been claimed? In the proportion 
of 2^ per cent. Thus only 2| per cent, of the young workmen had 
served a regular apprenticeship. When the council elect took charge 
of the municipal finances, it found in the Treasury about 60,000 francs 
appropriated to these prizes which had not been claimed. It devoted 
this sum to the foundation of the school of the Boulevard de la Yil- 
lette (Diderot). The school Diderot has not less than 330 pupils; 
eight trades are taught there — six of iron and two of wood. The 
principal difficulty has been to retain pupils in the shops until the 
end of their third year. The first year is given to rotation, that is to 
say that during these first 11 months, the scholar passes successively 



Industrial Education Commission. 449 

into the eight shops of the school. This practice gives so good re- 
salts by the general and practical knowledge which it imparts to the 
pupil, that in the second year, when he makes choice of a profes- 
sion, he becomes sufficiently skilful to make his labor already valua- 
ble. The industrials of the neighborhood of the schools observed 
these pupils of the second year, and by the attraction of a salary in- 
duced them to engage in their services. From this it followed that a 
very small number of pupils completed the third year. Four years 
ago the school, which already numbered 270 pupils, did not add to the 
industries of Paris more than 25 pupils of the third year. The coun- 
cil of supervision appointed to the school by the municipal council 
attempted to overcome this difficulty. They succeeded in providing 
payment for the breakfast of about a third of the scholars of the 
school [The Parisian breakfast for schools occurs at about 11 or 12 
o'clock, and is in almost all cases taken at the schools, either being 
carried there by the pupils or provided there free or on a small pay- 
ment]. They organized a refreshment room [cantine}, made dis- 
tributions of prizes, granted prizes to the most meritorious scholars 
of the third year, and gave them vacation trips. Thanks to these 
arrangements the school has this year sent out to industry 75 scholars 
of the third year. A diploma is given to these scholars of the third 
year which is equivalent to a veritable certificate of apprenticeship. 
This diploma is highly appreciated by the industrials. The present 
month a second school of apprenticeship opens, the furniture school, 
situated in the Rue de Reuilly. Furthermore the city of Paris has 
this year taken charge of the orphanage of the Avenue Philip Au- 
gustus, in which about 100 young boys learn different trades in iron 
and wood. Combining these numbers of pupils, we find : 

School of Physics and Chemistry, 90 

School Diderot, 330 

Furniture school, 6v 

Orphanage, Philip Augustus, 100 

Total (boys learning trades), 580 

The girls have not been forgotten. The city has established or 
adopted for them 5 schools of apprenticeship called professional and 
housekeeping schools, [Me^iageres] : 

Kue Fondary, 180 scholars. 

RueBouret, J23 '' 

Rue Bossuet, 200 " 

Rue Ganneron, 130 " 

Rue de Poiton, 170 " 

If we add to these figures the number of pupils in the superior 
primary school of the Rue de Jouy, we see that about 1,083 young 
29 Ed. Com. 



450 Report of the 

girls are preparing for trade, lor cutting, for painting artificial flowers 
on porcelain and fans, etc. Nor should I overlook the instruction in 
domestic and household economy which is given to them both theo- 
reticalJy and practically. 

I cannot close without speaking to you of the careers which we 
attempt to open to these young girls. The first is book keeping ; also 
in some schools we have carried commercial courses as far as possi- 
ble. These are so far complete at present that they comprise the Eng- 
lish Language, practically taught. Drawing is perfected so far as to 
prepare the young girls for pottery, for painting on fans, for the making 
of artificial flowers, and for all other applications of painting. Then 
comes cutting. Already our schools have sent their products to the 
national and international expositions which have been opened in 
recent years, and have there obtained prizes. There, Ladies and 
Gentlemen, is what the city of Paris does with the 25,000,000 francs 
which is appropriated for education. Thanks to modern progress, all 
good tendencies converge toward this result : to raise the morale of 
our country, to develop in our youthful generations that which you 
will permit me to call the primary virtue — the love of labor — and it 
is the most encouraging thing to see great communities like Havre, 
Lyons, Bordeaux and Paris, encourage everything which is calculated 
to place labor in honor. A happy impulse is now impressed upon it. 
Let us hope that the movement will receive no check, and that it will 
prepare youth who will contribute more and more to the grandeur 
and true wealth of the country. 

The National Professional School of Vierzon. 

After the passage of the law of December 11, 1880, authorizing 
the establishment of Manual Training Schools, the promoters of the 
movement actively interested themselves in seeing that the first steps 
should be wisely taken. A commission was appointed May 31, 1881, 
to prepare a plan of studies and organization for such schools, with 
Senator Tolain as President. The Commission also included M. 
Buisson, who is well known in this country and whose indefatigable 
and intelligent labors in behalf of public instruction in France been 
of inestimable value ; M. Jacquemart, inspector-general of the Na 
tional Schools of Arts and Trades and of Technical Instruction ; M. 
Salicis, of the Polytechnic School, besides others whose names are 
not so familiar. On the 11th of the following August, Senator Tolain 
presented the following report of the Commission, which may be re- 
garded as an expansion in one direction of the general principles 
discussed in the report already given, pp. 139-13 : 

"This commission has the honor to present to you to-daj^ the result of its labors. 
Article 1st of the Law of December 11, 1880, relative to the manual schools of ap- 
prenticeship, is thus expressed : 'The schools of apprenticeship founded by the 
communes or the departments to develop the necessary dexterity and technical 



Industrial Education Commission. 451 

knowledge in youth who are destined to the manual professions are placed in a 
number of schools of j)ublic primary instruction. 

The public schools of complementary primary instruction, whose programme in- 
cludes courses or classes of professional instruction, are assimilated to the manual 
schools of apprenticeship.' The Law of December 11, 1880, was suggested to its 
authors by the truthful remark that, in France, the professional value of the work- 
men of almost all classes showed a tendency to decline since a certain time. This 
regrettable condition of things, which would involve for the future of our national 
industry the gravest consequences, is due in great part to the fact that for various 
causes mentioned and analysed by Messrs. Nadaud and Tolain in their reports to 
the Chamber of Deputies and to the Senate, that apprenticeship no longer exists so 
to speak in our country. 

This situation could be remedied only by encouraging the creation in industrial 
centers of special professional schools for each branch of industry, able to replace 
and even more than replace what apprenticeship had formerly been for young peo- 
ple. The utility of the creation of such establishments needs no longer to be shown. 
A number of industrial centers have recognized it, and have taken in this resi^ecta 
praiseworthy initiative. Thus there have been founded at Paris the municipal 
sc-hool of the Boulevard de la Villette (Diderot); the school of watchmaking ; at 
Reims, the professional municipal school where dyeing, spinning and weaving oc- 
cupy the»principal place ; at Nimes, the manufacturing school for the various tissues, 
which have made the fortune of that city : at Limoges, the school of ceramics ; at 
Douai, at Havre, the schools of apprenticeship, etc. This being the situation, the 
Law of December 11, 1880, has a double purpose : First, to form in the special schools 
of apprenticeship and train for the industries workmen completely initiated to the 
labor of their profession ; Second, to give the manual dexterity and the technical 
knowledge necessary for young people who propose to enter the special schools of 
apprenticeship of the secondary grade. 

It is in this view, M. le Minister, that you have been anxious to create a National 
School of superior primary instruction, and of professional instruction, preparatory 
to apprenticeship, destined to serve as a type for establishments of the same kind 
which will be founded under the law. It is the programme of this school which 
the commission named by the decree of May 31, 1881, has been charged to elaborate. 
The commission was of opinion that such an establishment should include a Salle 
d'asile, a primary school, and a professional superior primary school ; furthermore, 
that, with a view of preparing for the futux*e a body of teachers fitted to conduct the 
practical exercises given in these schools, it would be desirable for the State to send 
a certain number of assistant masters of the normal schools to spend in this insti- 
tution time enough to acquire the knowledges in which they were actually deficient. 
It was also understood by the commission, that by reason of the definite character 
of the projected schools, all specialization in manual instruction was to be avoided. 
The projected school should then include: 1. The Salle d'asile, receiving children from 
3 to 6 years ; 2. The primary school receiving children from 7 to 12 years ; 3. The 
superior primary school, in which children should be admitted from 12 to 14 years; 
4. The section of assistant masters. The problem was to determine a continuous 
series of manual exercises during this period, as a result of which the child, on 
leaving the superior primary school, would find himself possessed of dexterity of 
hand, and at the same time of a certain amount of technical knowledges. The com- 
mission has thought that the programme which accompanies the present report 
Avould answer this object. So far as concerns the Salle d'asile, the application of 
Froebel's method, suitably extended and developed, will completely satisfy all the 
requirements of the general plan. At the age of 7 the child enters the primary 
school. He will remain there until the completion of his 12th year, as a rule, that 
is to say 6 years. In order to form a more exact estimate of the kind of manual 
labors in which children of the primary school should be exercised, it is proper to 
consider the grade of knowledge which it is desirable for them to have on leaving 
the superior school. The indispensable, theoretical knowledge appears to us exactly 
specified in the programme established by the ministerial decree of January 15, 
1881, relative to the superior primary schools of three years. As to the practical 



452 Eeport of the 

knowledge, the commission lias thought that it would be jDossible to assure it to the 
pupils of the superior primary school under favorable conditions by a progressive 
manual instruction Avhich should be limited to two hours a day during the first 
year, but occupy almost the entire time during the third. From this observation it 
tollows that it would not be necessary to place tools for w^orking wood and iron in 
the hands of the child before the age of 12 years. Nevertheless, there is reason to 
think that from 10 years onward the labor of the shop would not be injurious if pro- 
perlj^ directed, and if one is careful to place in hands still weak and untried only such 
rools as are proportioned to the muscular strength of the pupil, and so chosen as to 
avoid injuring the development of an organism still forming. Children of 11 and 12 
years will then be already familiarized in some degree, with most of the tools em" 
ployed in wood-working ; will be exercised in turning, and will have begun to use 
the file. Skill and nicety of touch will at the same time be cultivated by the prac- 
tice of modeling. As for the period from 7 to 10 years, there should be no attempt 
to do more than develop the manual dexterity of the child by slight labors demand- 
ing almost no expenditure of physical strength ; drawing, carving, the arrangmeht 
of bits of card in order to obtain objects of various forms and colors will exercise at 
the same time attention, intelligence and ingenuity. To these labors may be joined 
the execution of small objects in basket w^ork, and the making of mechanical lat- 
tice work, requiring the employment of only a light tool. An effort should be made 
from this period to induce the pupils to make objects which they can carry home, 
and show as their Mork. Some specimens marked with the name of each should 
remain at the school, and form the beginnings of a school museum. From 7 to 10 
years, modeling should hold a certain place in the school exercises. The child 
leaves the primary school and enters the superior school. The age which appears 
most suitable if he is to become a workman is 12 years. The child leaving the 
school three years later at 15 or 16 years will find himself in more favorable circum- 
stances either to enter a special professional school of the secondary grade or to per- 
fect himself very readily as a workman in industrial establishments. The manual 
exercises of the superior primary school should have as a foundation, in the opinion 
of the commission, the working of wood and of iron. In fact labor upon these 
two materials offers an almost unlimited field for the general and unspecialized 
preparation, which pupils ought to receive. The v»'orking in wood and in iron will 
alternate so that, at the end of the year, the pupil will have been exercised during 
two periods of 60 days in each of the two shops. The two kinds of labor connected 
in this way will complement each other. It is thus that after having studied the 
practice in wood turning, one will be able to pass more readily to the turning of 
metals, and that after having constructed any piece of joinery whatever one will be 
better able to meet the difficulties presented by the fitting of two pieces of metal. 
In the superior primary school, drawing should consist, during the first year, of 
exercises in outline and in color, the object of which will be to secure precision and 
firmness of execution. In the second year, architectural and ornamental drawing 
will be combined with work in modeling. Free-hand drawing should hold one of 
the most important places in this branch of instruction. In the third year, the ex- 
ercises in drawing will consist princix'ally in sketching and in drawling, Avitli sec- 
tions and sides, the different tools and instruments employed in shops. The shop 
work of the pupils will in all cases be executed according to sketches made by them 
from the pieces themselves. 

Such are, M. le Minister, summarily expressed, the general ideas according to 
w^hicli the programme, which the commission has the honor to submit to your ex- 
amination, has been prepared. 

The question respecting the assistant masters of the normal schools, it has seemed 
best for the present to reserve." 

[Note. The course of study recommended has already been given, pp. 432-4, 
above. ] 

On the 9th of July, 1881, the President of the Republic decreed the 
establishment at Yierzon of '' a National school of Primary instruc- 
tion and of Professional instruction preparatory to apprenticeship, 



Industrial Education Commission. 453 

destined to serve as a type for institutions of the same kind," as pro- 
vided for by the law of 1880. The city had already voted the funds, 
chosen the location, and prepared plans. In 1883, the corner stone 
of the building was laid by M. Brisson, then President of the Cham- 
ber of Deputies, in the midst of a distinguished audience of citizens 
and officials, and with every circumstance calculated to express and 
to increase public and private interest in the new institution. 

The address of the occasion was delivered by M. Jules Ferry, in 
which were set forth with admirable clearness the purpose of this 
and similar institutions, and the views of the Government in fostering 
them At the risk of incidental repetition of what has been already 
said, we translate the address in full : 

" Gentlemen : — The President of the Chamber has already defined, 
in excellent terms, the work of which we here lay the corner stone. 
If the Government of the Republic has chosen the city of Yierzon in 
order to make here this great and decisive experiment, it is because 
Vierzon is before all and above all a city of labor ; because it owes 
everything to labor, and from labor only can expect its development 
and its future, and because, thanks to the special situation which 
nature has given it, it unites and represents at once mechanical and 
agricultural industries. These are the titles of Yierzon to the pre- 
ference of the Government. This is why we are founding here not 
only a school designed to subserve local needs, but an institution 
truly worthy of this name. National School, which we have given to 
it. We wish to attempt here and to realize on a large scale an idea 
which the First Republic pursued and cherished ; which it formulated 
with remarkable precision, and which has found renewed favor in the 
public mind whenever Democracy has made a step in advance, as 
well after the Revolution of 1830, as after that of 1848. This creative 
thought, this settled purpose, which had its origin in our country 
nearly a century ago and which to-day finds itself realized, the idea 
which should be engraved upon the front of this edifice is, that the 
National School in a democracy of progress like ours should be 
essentially a school of work. 

" Yes, gentlemen, it is from this point of view that we have revolu- 
tionized the school. We have begun this beneficial transformation, 
and if the future is granted to us, it shall suffer no harm in our hands. 

" The supreme purpose, the final aim, the essential mission of the 
modern school is the education of this democracy of workingmen 
who are not only a majority in numbers, but whose vigorous virtues 
make the strength of the country. 

"Thence arises the professional character of our primary education 
as it is established in the new programmes. I say it aloud, and I 
mark this fact, important to the laborers who listen to me and to 
whom we can allow it to be said that our policy is, in respect to 
what concerns them, not barren or indiff'erent. The primary school 



454 Keport of the 

of to day which we have organized after the ideal entertained by the 
French Revolution — this little school is from its first hour professional. 
That is to say, its aim is to prepare the child to become like the im- 
mense majority of French citizens, a workman. 

" In truth, gentlemen, what are these new methods which we see ap- 
plied in the school? What are these lessons about things — these 
school museums in which the industry of master or of scholars labors to 
gather the different products either of the soil or of the local trades? 
What is all that if not the beginning of the first form of professional 
instruction, the elementary preparation for that practical life, that 
laborious life, which gives to each man in this France the right to 
carry his head high and call himself a citizen. 

" All new programmes rest upon this double idea : First, That 
primary education in a Democracy should comprise at the outset a 
general education, without which there is no durable specialty, no 
solid and serious professional instruction ; and in the second place in a 
series of exercises tending to place the child by progressive and well 
arranged initiations, in contract with the realities of life. To form 
from childhood the man and the citizen ; to prepare workmen for the 
shop, is our task, and if the present generation has time to fulfil it, it 
will be able to rest gloriously in its grave. 

'' Thus, gentlemen, are passed the first years of the primary school ; 
but when the primary course has finished this first circle, as the Presi- 
dent of the Chamber just now said, a singular and disturbing chasm 
{vide) opens beneath the feet of the youth : no more school, no more 
anything between his twelfth and thirteenth year and the beginning 
of apprenticeship. It is this chasm which we wish to fill by the pro- 
fessional school, and it is a typical professional school of this order 
that we wish to establish here. I desire to define clearly its charac- 
ter, and to estimate with precision its extent and bearing. We do 
not wish to create at Vierzon a professional school which duplicates 
or which copies the School of Arts and Trades of Chalons, of Aix, of 
Angers. No, those schools have a determinate end. They undertake 
to form superintendents — the sub-officers — for the army of labor ; here 
we wish to prepare the soldiers for this army. 

" Engineers, managers of works, designers, superintendents ; these 
are the cadres of French labor and industry. It is not with these 
that we here preoccupy ourselves ; it is with the great working mass 
itself. It is the laborer whom we wish to elevate. It is to him that 
we wish to give a practical and intellectual education which will ren- 
der him superior to his daily task, and which, far from disgusting him 
with it or from withdrawing him from it, will attach him to it by a 
bond more intimate and more profound. 

"Ah ! gentlemen, I know the old doctrine — the aristocratic doctrine 
— which said : It is imprudent to give education to the people. It is 
imprudent to teach the workman anything beyond what is necessary 



Industrial Education Commission. 455 

for his daily task. He will take a dislike to his trade if he once looks 
beyond its lowly horizon. That, gentlemen, is an aristocratic concep- 
tion and a false conception. The democratic conception — which is 
ours — is precisely antipodal. We judge, in fact, that the more the 
workman shall be familiarized with the natural laws, of which he is 
too often the ignorant auxiliary, the better he will understand his 
daily labor ; the more he will honor and love his trade. 

'' There is upon this point a fine saying of Channing, one of the men 
who have best loved the people and best known modern Democracy. 
Channing has made the remark that industrial labor — the labor of 
the shops — sets in operation incessantly all the discoveries of science 
and all scientific notions, the oldest as well as the newest, and he 
recommends statesmen to spread abroad in the shop these scientific 
knowledges, these positive conquests of humanity; for, says he, 
* There is no more certain means of ennobling a manual profession 
than by showing the intimate relation which connects it with the 
natural laws of the world.' 

•'To ennoble manual labor, gentlemen, is our wish also. This purpose 
we have inscribed in large letters upon our programmes. The pro- 
gramme of moral and civic instruction decreed by the Superior Coun- 
cil of Public Instruction contains an article with this title : ' The 
^Nobility of Manual Labor ;' and in order that the nobility of manual 
labor may be recognized, not only hy those who exercise it, but by 
the whole of society, the surest and only practical means have been 
taken; manual labor has been placed in the school itself. Be well 
assured that when the plane and the file shall have taken the same 
place — a place of honor — by the side of the compass, the chart and 
the book of history, and shall be the object of an intelligent and sys- 
tematic instruction, many predjudices will disappear; many antago- 
nisms of classes will vanish ; social peace will begin on the benches of 
the primary school, and concord, with its radiant light will illuminate 
the future of French society. 

"Gentlemen, the professional instruction which shall be given here 
^ill have for its distinctive character not to constitute a separate in- 
struction for any single industry. It will be professional without 
sspecialization ; it will teach the general principles upon which all in- 
dustries rest ; it will associate, for example, the notions which control 
the iron industry with those which direct the wood industry. During 
the three years which the young pupils of Yierzon shall pass in the 
professional school, between the twelfth and sixteenth year, they will 
become, without difficulty — trial of which has been made, the pro- 
grammes arranged and time of studies fixed for the present — they 
ivill become experts in these two fundamental branches ot manual 
labor, the working of iron and of wood. And what will be the con- 
sequence of this general professional education, which will not give a 



456 Repokt of the 

trade, but which will render the pupil capable of learning much more 
quickly and much better that which he shall choose ? 

" This consequence will be double. In the first place, it is evident 
that the duration of apprenticeship will be notably reduced, which ia 
a considerable advantage ; and, in the second place, during these 
three years of study the child will have time to do what he can now 
do, choose freely, and with knowledge of his reasons, the career which 
befits him — determine his vocation ; finally, he will be armed against 
that danger of mechanical specialty arising from the unlimited divi- 
sion of labor, which is one of the necessities of modern industrial 
progress, but the evil effects of which it is the object of human wisdom,, 
of the wisdom of government and of the teachers of the people, to 
anticipate and to diminish. He will be able then to contend against 
a tyrannical specialization ; he will be able at need to choose a trade, 
and will not be necessarilybound tothe iron industry since he will also 
be well prepared for working in wood. 

" This, gentlemen, is what I desired to say here of the distinctive 
character and practical aim of the new school. I do not hesitate to 
declare that it is one of the most popular and most democratic labors 
which one can undertake in these times, and I add that it is a work 
eminently National. Professional instruction such as we intend it to 
be we shall succeed in organizing, for we are marvelously supported 
by the movement of public opinion. There are upon this subject 
magnificent figures which I wish to indicate to you in passing. Pro- 
fessional instruction is already associated with superior primary in- 
struction by xnore than one bond. Upon a lesser scale — in a less 
complete way than in our school of Vierzon — it may be regarded as 
formed, constituted and seriously established in four hundred villages 
or chief places of French cantons. And since what time, gentlemen '^ 
Since 1879. In 1879 the were forty superior primary schools and pro- 
fessional schools in France, which had sprung up almost at random 
through the good will of the municipalities and by the spontaneous 
movement of public opinion ; and, since 1879, without other interven- 
tion than the holding out of a friendly hand, there have been created 
four hundred in this land of France. 

" This instruction, gentlemen, which has, as you see, so deep roots in 
the Nation itself, responds to a double interest — a great moral and 
social interest, a great economic interest. 

''Knowledge is, for the workmen, without doubt, a great instrument 
of power, of dominion over matter ; but it is also a great means of 
quiet and pacification. The passions which foster anarchy are all the 
daughters of ignorance. To teach the workman not only the natural 
laws which he employs in the exercises of his trade, but to teach him 
equally the social law ; to make him see clear amid these economic phe- 
nomena which the adversaries of existing society — which is, however, 
the most democratic and the most free of societies — seek to travesty 



Industrial Education Commission. 457 

or to obscure; to give to the workman just notions respecting 
social problems, is greatly to promote the solution of them. What 
was in other times only a religious or sombre resignation to necessi- 
ties not understood, may become, through the progress of knowledge 
and the habit of reflection, a considerate and voluntary adhesion to 
the natural law of things— an adhesion which compensates itself in 
some degree, by a more practical conception of the means by which 
one can lighten its severity. 

'• I have said, finally, gentlemen, that there is in this affair a great 
economic interest to consider. Surely France is a great laborious 
nation. It has carried away great victories on pacific fields, in free 
competition with Europe; but everything declares to far seeing eyes 
that here, as upon other fields of battle, we must not sleep upon past 
victories. We have all about us, at our gates as well as beyond 
the Atlantic, most formidable competitions in free labor. Their 
products which reach us, the reports which are made to us, above all 
the competition which we meet in foreign markets, give us in this 
respect warnings which we must not despise. 

" Thus, gentlemen, upon the field of industrial battle as well as upon 
the other, nations can fall and perish ; upon this field of battle as 
upon the other one may be surprised; one may, by excess of confi- 
dence, by admiration of himself, or by sluggishness of the Publia 
Powers, lose in a brief time a superiority professionally uncontested. 
It is for this great danger that Professional Industry in our country 
should prepare. There is no National interest more important, and I 
can say and repeat here, gentlemen, without fear of contradiction from 
any one : To elevate the shop is to elevate the country." 

We cannot more fitly conclude our account of this class of institu- 
tions, than by quoting the words of the British Royal Commission,, 
which are as applicable in the Uniied States as in Great Britain. They 
say: 

'' In the whole system of French instruction your Commissioners 
have found nothing, except as respects art teaching, which seems to 
them to be so worthy of attention, with a view to their adaptation to 
the special requirements of this country, as these higher elementary 
technical schools. " 

Laws, etc. , Relating to Manual Training Schools. 

The Law of December 11, 1880, concerning Manual Schools of Ap- 
prenticeship, has been so often mentioned, that the following trans- 
lation will not be without interest : 

Article 1. Schools of Apprenticeship founded by Communes or Departments 
to develof) in j^outh who are destined to the manual professions, the necessary dex- 
terity and technical knowledge, are placed among the number of institutions of 
public primary instruction. 

The public schools of complementary primary instruction, whose programme 



458 Eeport of the 

comprises courses or classes of professional instruction, are assimilated to the Man- 
ual Schools of Apprenticeship, 

Article 2. The Manual Schools of Apprenticeship and other schools at once 
primary and professional, founded and supported by the free [i. e. private] estab- 
lishments, are placed in the number of establishments designated by Article 56 of 
the Law of March 15, 1850, as entitled to participate in the appropriations provided 
by the Budget of Public Instruction. 

Article 3. The institutions designated in Articles 1 and 2, of the present lavr 
will be entitled also to participate in such appropriations of the Budget of the Min- 
istry of Agriculture and of Commerce, as are designed for institutions of techni- 
cal instruction. 

Article 4. The programme of instruction of each of these institutions is fixed 
by decree, following a plan elaborated by the founders and approved by the Minis- 
ters of Public Instruction and of Agriculture and Commerce. 

Article 5. In schools founded by Departments or Communes the director is ap- 
pointed in the same manner as all public instructors ; on the nomination of the 
Municipal Council if the school is founded by a Commune, or by General Council, if 
it is founded by the Department. 

The personnel charged with professional instruction is appointed by the mayor in 
case of a Communal school, or by the Prelect in case of a Departmental school, on 
the nomination of the Commission of Supervision and Perfecting appointed in con- 
nection with the institution by the Municipal Council or the General Council. 

In private schools the whole personnel is chosen by the founders. 

Article 6. A Rule of Public Administration will determine the method of apply- 
ing the present law. 

The following provisions concerning the examination for a certifi- 
cate of fitness to give instruction in Manual Training, are translated 
from the French laws relating to public instruction : 

Article 194. Two Commissions, the one for male, the other for female candidates, 
are appointed each year by the Minister of Public Instruction, who will examine 
for the certificate of fitness to give instruction in Manual Work. 

Two directors or professors, either of the normal school or of a superior primary 
school, must constitute a part of the Commission appointed to examine candidates. 

Article 195. The candidates are required to enroll themselves in Paris at the 
Sorbonne, and in the departments at the office of the Inspector of Academic, to in- 
dicate the places where they have resided and the duties they have performed for 
the last ten years, etc. 

Article 196. The register of enrollment is closed one month before the opening 
of the session. The list of candidates is announced hy a Ministerial Ordei. 

Article 197. The examination consists — for male candidates — first, of a com- 
position of geometrical drawing : elevation of an object in relief, and drawn exactly 
to a given scale, or of a sketch relating to an elementary problem in descriptive 
geometry (line and plan, intersection of geometrical solids in simple cases ; prisms, 
pyramids, cylinders, cones and spheres — questions of shade) three hours ; second, 
of a test in modeling after an easy model, with reference to the chief characteristic 
of the model, four hours ; third, of the execution, according to a drawing, of a piece 
of work in Avood or iron, four hours ; fourth, of the execution, after a model, of a 
simple object in wood-turning, three hours. 

In the course of the last two trials questions are given to the candidates respect- 
ing the raw material placed before them, as well as respecting the processes which 
they have employed. 

For female candidates : First, of a composition upon some question of domestic 
economy, three hours ; second, of a composition in ornamental drawing specially 
applied to needlework ; third, of a practical test relating to one or more of the 
exercises included in the programme of manual labor for girls in the normal schools 
^nd the superior primary schools. 

Article 198. All the compositions are made at Paris in two consecutive days. 

Article 199. After the close of the examination, the Commission arranges, in the 



Industrial Education Commission 459 

order of merit, a list of the candidates whom it considers worthy of the certificate 
of fitness to give Manual Instruction. 
This list is submitted to the approval of the Minister, who delivers the certificates 

The following resolutions, adopted at an International Congress of 
Teachers, held at Havre, September, 1885, are believed to express the 
prevailing sentiment among teachers in Continental Europe : 

1. The Congress recognizing that manual training should be made an integral 
part of a good system of general education, since it contributes to the develop- 
ment of activity, observation, perception and intuition, declares that it should be 
introduced as well as possible into the primary schools. 

2. Manual training should be the same for all schools in the elementary and mid- 
dle grades ; in the complementary and superior courses it should be gradually 
-adapted to local needs. 

3. The instruction in manual training in the elementary school should be given 
directly by the teacher, or, provisionally, under his direction, by workmen — who 
shall furnish all necessary guarantees of capacity, morality and conduct — who shall 
be chosen on his recommendation. 

4. The Congress, considering that it is important first of all to prepare the future 
teachers for the new instruction, and to furnish to those who are now teaching a 
source of information, declares that the regulations in force relative to drawing and 
to modeling, works in the shop, in the laboratory and the experimental field, should 
be applied without delay in all normal schools, from which the example and the 
impulse ought to proceed. Special courses in manual training should be instituted 
during vacations in the normal schools, for the benefit of teachers who shall make 
request for them. 

5. In girls schools manual instruction should include, besides works in sewing, 
practical exercises relative to domestic economy, to gardening and to cutting, 

6. The superior primary schools should have a provisional character in this sense: 
that they should do a portion of the manual work with reference to local needs. 
The practical exercises should include Tvood-working, iron-working, modeling and 
the applications of agricultural science in the experimental field. 

7. Work-shops should be annexed to all superior primary schools, and to the ele- 
mentary schools— city and rural. The State should require themunicipalties which 
have created superior primary schools to appropriate as promptly as possible the 
funds necessary for installing them. 

8. Industrial drawing should have a very large place in the schools of apprentice- 
ship, and the superior primary schools. It should have descriptive geometry as its 
foundation. 

9. It is desirable that certain advantages be attached to the possession of the cer- 
tificate of superior primary studies. 

10. The instruction in manual work in the superior primary schools should be in_ 
trusted to workmen chosen with care, on the recommendation of the director, and 
should be placed under his authority. In the superior primary schools for girls, 
the instruction in cutting should be intrusted to expert work-women, chosen bj^ 
the teachers and placed under their direction. 

11. In important f enters schools of apprenticeship should be established similar 
to that at Havre and adapted to the needs of the locality. They should be founded 
by the Communes, by the Chamber of Commerce, by Syndical Chambers or by any 
other associations. Institutions of apprenticeship should be established in each de- 
partment to receive orphans, children morally abandoned, or incorrigible. 

12. The direction of the school of apprenticeship should be single, and confided 
to the teaching director. 

The E'cole Normale Superieure de Travail Manuel* 

No. 10, Eue des Ursulines, Paris, has been created for the training of 
masters, who shall instruct the students of the ordinary normal schools 

*This account is taken from the Report of the Royal Commissioners, vol. I, v. 210. 



460 Kepokt op the 

of the country in manual work. It was established and opened on 
the 1st of December, 1882. The course, as at present arranged, lasts 
for one year of ten months. It is, however, contemplated that it will 
be necessary to extend it over a second year eventually, but as the 
masters are very urgently required, it is necessary to prepare a cer- 
tain number in the one year for the present. 

The students have to pass a qualifying entrance examination, which 
consists of the Brevet de Oapacite, usually required for teachers, and 
certain extra subjects — chemistry, physics and natural history ; they 
do not require to be qualified in any way in manual work before their 
admission. The limit of age is from 20 to 35. Although the Brevet 
de Capacite will eventually be indispensable, the regulations have in 
this first year been somewhat relaxed. 

The school is held in a former girls' school, which has been hastily 
and temporarily fitted up for its present purpose. It has a considera- 
ble area of land at back and front. There are two small botanical 
gardens, and a graveled court yard serving for recreation and gym- 
nastic exercises. It is intended that the students shall have military 
training. 

There are at present 48 masters in training ; this being the full 
capacity of the establishment. Thirty of these board in the house, 
the remainder are provided for in the neighborhood. 

The cost of fitting up the school has been about £2,400 ($12,000). 
The instruction is gratuitous. In fact, the students receive payment, 
as those who are already teachers of primary schools retain their pay 
while they remain here, and the others receive the sum of £5 ($25) 
per month. There are seven professors forming the teaching staff", 
and ten master workmen. The latter are only employed during cer- 
tain hours, giving such a portion of their time as may be needed. All 
the work done in the workshops belongs to the students ; nothing 
made is intended for sale. The cost of materials used in the work- 
shops is about £7 4^. ($35) per month. It is expected that the bud- 
get of the school will amount to £3,600 ($18,000) for the first year of 
ten months, equal to about £7 10^. (about $36.50) per head per month. 
All the costs of this school are borne by the State, but as it is an ex- 
periment only, there is no sum yet taken for it in the budget of esti- 
mates. 

It will be seen from the programme that the course of ii_struction 
is partly theoretical and partly practical. One and a half hours per 
day are allotted to theoretical work, and 4| hours to mechanical work 
in the shops. There is no practicing school attached to this normal 
school, as is generally the case, but demonstrations are given by each 
student in turn before the others, in presence of the master. The 
teaching is uniform, all going through the same stages. 

The mornings are as a rule devoted to working in wood, the after- 
noons to working in iron. Each student makes a set of small models 



Industrial Education Commission. 461 

for his own use for teaching purposes. Modelmaking seems to be a 
strong feature of the teaching. There is a special modeling room, in 
which all are taught modeling in clay and subsequently the prepara- 
tion of plaster models of building construction on a small scale — 
masonry joints, stone work, etc.; there is a special teacher for this 
branch of the work, and four hours per week are devoted to it. We 
were shown some very neat plaster models of arches, made to a scale 
of one-tenth full size, careful drawings of which had first been pre- 
pared. 

The fitting shop contains 24 vises. All the students learn to file 
and to chip. There is a regular set course of work lasting four 
months. Places are provided in the smithy for 6 students, who learn 
forging and welding, making up bars from faggots of scraps, making 
Duts and bolts, etc. Six work simultaneously at the iron lathes in the 
turning shop, and 12 at the wood lathes. There are two foremen 
workmen in each of the shops, with the exception of the turnery, 
where there are three. The students pass two months at wood turn- 
ing and two months at iron turning. There is no power provided for 
the lathes, as none could be obtained in the schools to which the 
teachers would eventually be sent. 

The natural history teaching is also made a special and prominent 
feature in this school. There are two professors in this department. 
The professor of botany gives lectures in his subject, illustrated 
partly by the specimens in the botanical garden, and partly by the 
excursions, which take place every fortnight. There is also a physio- 
logical laboratory, which contains a large collection of aquaria, to- 
gether with toads, and tortoises in tanks; also many other living ani- 
mals, rabbits, rats, squirrels, etc. These are not used for purposes of 
vivisection, but for simple anatomical lectures, for stuffing, etc. 

There is a well fitted laboratory, in which all the students learn 
photography. They are specially taught how to prepare negatives 
suitable for screen projection, as this is regarded as an important 
mode of illustrating lectures on natural history. 

A geological collection is being formed by the students, who go out 
on an excursion in the neighborhood of Paris once every fortnight 
on a weekday during the summer, and also on Sunday afternoons. 

On the upper floor of the school is a series of rooms, where the 
students prepare their studies. Here we were shown a small collec- 
tion of woodwork, made in the Swedish Slojd schools, and collected 
and presented by the director, M. Salicis. In another room were 
hung numerous satchels and tin botanizing boxes, butterfly nets, geo- 
logical hammers, etc., for the excursions previously described. This 
apparatus was all numbered, and is lent to each student during the 
time he remains at the school. Here was also a collection of dia- 
grams of simple dissections used by the professor of physiology. 

On the first floor was a school museum and lecture theatre ; on the 



462 Eeport of the 

ground floor a refectory, where the students and masters take their 
meals together. There is a very cleverly fitted chemical laboratory, 
the professor being the former chemistry master at the Professional 
School of Rheims. This laboratory, which occupies an area of only 
550 square feet, contains working places for 48 students. The benches 
are covered with white glazed tiles, and provide a metre in length for 
each student. The sets of re-agent bottles had India-rubber stoppers 
with pipettes passing through them, thus enabling the student to use 
at will either a very small or a larger quantity of the re-agent. The 
professor explained his system of chemical work to be one of regular 
drill, all the students performing a series of set experiments simulta- 
neously; he having a raised desk, from which he could overlook the 
whole of the work in progress, and see that each man was carrying 
out his experiment properly. 

The sub-director, M. Merceaux, informed us that it was not proposed^ 
so far as he knew, to establish schools for training master- workmen 
to serve as instructors in primary schools ; such men could, doubtless, 
be readily obtained from the Arts and Trades Schools at Aix, Angers 
and Chalons. Several of the masters at this school have come from 
the Ecole des Arts et Metiers at Angers. 

The students, whether living in the house or lodging in the neigh- 
borhood, are all free after 6 o'clock. No masters have as yet issued 
from the school, as a full year has not yet expired since its establish- 
ment, but M. Merceaux stated that he thought that some of the men 
then in training would be perfectly competent to undertake the duties 
for which they were being prepared at the expiration of the pre-ar- 
ranged course. He stated that there was considerable inducement to 
masters to exchange a career of teacher in a primary school for that 
for which they were here trained, as the salary of a professor at a 
normal school was approximately double that of an ordinary primary 
school teacher." 

Normal Schools. 
The following tables show the distribution of subjects of instruc- 
tion by years and by courses in Normal Schools for male and female 
teachers, respectively : 



Industrial Education Commission. 

1. For Males. 



46a 



Subjects. 



Total Hours Per Week. 



First Year. Second Year. Third Year, 



Civic Instruction, 

Morals, 

Pedagogics and School Administration, . 
The French Language and Elements of 

French Literature, 

History, 

Geography-, ■_••■••. 

Arithmetic and Book-keepmg, 

Geometry, Surveying and Levelling, , . 

Phj^sics," 

Chemistry, 

Natural Sciences, 

Agriculture and Horticulture, 

Living Languages, 

Writing, 

Drawing, 

Singing and Music, 

Gymnastics and Military Exercises, . . . 
Agricultural and Manual Work, 



Total, 



B8 



37 



'. For Females. 



Subjects. 



Total, Hours Per Week. 



First Year. Second Year. Third Year. 



Moral and Civic Instruction, 

Pedagogics and School Administration, . 
French Language and Elements of French 

Literature, 

History, 

Geography, 

Arithmetic and Book-keeping, 

Physics, 

Chemistry, 

Natural Sciences, 

Domestic Economy and Hygiene, .... 

Living Languages, 

Writing, 

Exercises in Cutting, 

Drawing, 

Singing and Music, 

Gymnastics, 

Floriculture and Gardening, 

Total, 



35 



35 



33 



The great storehouse of testimony respecting the whole subject of 
technical education are the volumes containing the results of the in- 
quiries of the British Royal Commission. We give here a few 
tracts, relating to detached but important subjects : 



ex- 



464 Report of the 

■Women's "Work Schools in France. 

Municipal Housekeeping School, Paris. — This school, known as the Ecole Pro- 
fessionnelle Menagere, is situated in the Rue Yiolet, 36, and has been open since 
the 1st of May, 1881. Its aim is to offer to young girls leaving the iDrimary school 
th'e opjportunity of learning some useful trade, and of giving them at the same time 
experience in domestic duties and household work, thus preparing them to carry 
on the avocations of familj^ life. The ordinary subjects of primary education are 
taught during the morning. This training serves to keep up and to strengthen the 
knowledge of the pupils acquired in the primary school. The special technical 
classes comprise a general course obligatory for all the pupils, and special technical 
courses suited to the profession or business which the pupil may have chosen. 

The conditions with respect to admission are as follows : For entering the pro- 
fessional and housekeeping classes the girls must be at least 12 years old, and must 
not exceed the age of 15, and they must hold the certificate of primary instruction. 
As a temporary expedient, however, dispensations are granted to children who are 
at least LS years of age, and who know how to read and write. 

The school is under the direction of Madam Lajotte and a staff of teachers for 
needlework, seamstresses' work, fine washing, embroidery on stuffs, artificial 
ilowermaking and staymakitig. There are also special teachers for the subjects of 
primary instruction, for cutting out and making up dresses, asAvellas for gymnastics, 
housekeeping, cooking, washing, ironing, etc. The pupils receive a premium pro- 
portionate to the value of the work done by them, when this work is of such a na- 
ture as to be capable of being used. 

Of the trades taught, ordinary dressmaking for the working and lower middle 
classes appears to be the one for which there is the greatest demand. Kext to this 
millinery and laundry work. The least profitable is said to be artificial flowermak' 
ing. All the girls take their turn at household work, including cooking. 

The municipally of Paris propose to extend this school, which is situated in a 
quarter of the city inhabited almost exclusively by the working classes, and to es- 
tablish other schools of the same kind in other similar parts of Paris. 

Engineering- "Works of Messrs. Schneider &; Co., Le Oreuzot, France. 

A very small number of the heads of departments are former students of the 
great Parisian technical schools, several are from the E'cole des Arts et Metiers, and 
many, including nearly all the foremen, have received no other instruction than that 
of the works and the excellent elementary schools founded and maintained by the 
firm. The head of the drawing office is one of these latter. The opinion of Mons. 
Henri Schneider was not favorable to the very high scientific courses of the Paris 
schools, except for men of remarkable ability, and of the energy and common sense 
necessary to acquire workshop practice at a comparatively'' late period of life, and to 
avoid a pedantic application of abstruse theory to practical work. His estimate of 
the E coles des Arts et Metiers, on the other hand, was very favorable. In several 
cases the firm had sent promising boys to those schools ; but the workshop Avas 
held to be the true school for foremen. 

In the elementary schools connected with the works and carried on at the expense 
of the Company, great attention is given to geometrical drawing, and the Avork of 
the boys was surprisingly good. The elements of chemistry and physics are also 
taught. Night classes have been given up, partly because the instruction of the 
elementary day school was considered sufficient, and partly in consequence of diffi- 
culties between masters and men during the times immediately preceding, and suc- 
ceeding to, the fall of the Empire. 

Silk Industry — Lyons. 
As to the prospects of England ever becoming a formidable competitor in the silk 
industry, one of the prominent citizens, who seemed to be very familiar with Eng- 
land, ridiculed the idea as being chimeiical. He said, '<The silk trade can never be- 
come important in England, because the English people have no taste. Taste is 
not natural to the Englishman, and never will be ; your sunless climate, your 



Industrial Education Commission. 466 

smoky atmosphere, your absence of art associations and surroundings, are all 
against the inculcation of taste." "In France," he continued, "everything is dif- 
ferent; taste seems to be inborn in the Frenchman, and it is cultivated at every 
step. You English are a remarkable people, and you take the lead in many things, 
but in taste you are far behind, and must be content to remain so." Stress was laid 
on the fact that in France all the children learn drawing as a part of their elementary 
education, and that the opportunities of continuing their instruction in art are in- 
finitely greater and more generally taken advantage of than in England, and that 
in one school in Lyons (the Martiniere) we might have counted a class of over 90 
engaged in modeling. The question was put, "Suppose the order of things were 
reversed — that drawing and modeling should be taught as meagrely in France as in 
England — in etfect, that they should be banished from most of the elementary 
schools ; and that their extensive and general study as now found in France should 
be adopted in England, what would you say of English and French taste then?" 
Our friend replied that he was not prepared to say what would happen under im- 
proved teaching of art in England, but to banish such teaching from the elementary 
schools of France would be nothing less than a national calamity. 

*vf**^f ******* 

An English merchant, long resident in Lyons, informed us that when the Swiss 
entered seriously into competion with Lyons, they were unsuccessful at first in their 
dyeing operations, and were compelled to send their yarns and pieces to Lyons to 
be dyed. The people at that time, as now, boasted of their incomparable water; 
but the enterprising Swiss manufacturers were not to be easily daunted ; they en- 
gaged some dyers from Lyons, and they brought to bear upon the question the 
scientific knowledge of their polytechnic schools ; and now, remarked our infor- 
mant, in many respects they surpass Lyons in dyeing, as they do also in some 
branches of weaving. 

Designing" for Textile Industries and Calico-Printing-. 

The designers for textiles and printed fabrics in Paris form a special profession, 
having their trade organizations, agencies, their studios, and their system of ap- 
prenticeship ; by arrangement with the English manufacturers patterns are sent to 
them for inspection or choice. Sometimes an English firm has even established an 
"at61ier" in Paris, so convinced have our calico-printers hitherto been that for the 
highest class of their goods Parisian taste and skill are essential conditions. 

"A good designer in Paris may earn from £250 to £300 (|1,250 to §1,500) a year, 
and the most distinguished, even considerably more than this, but, as in other 
trades, it is often found hard to earn a living. 

" Apprentices are taken by the Paris designers, beginning at about 5s. ($1.25) a 
week ; they are required to practice model drawing and are encouraged to attend 
the evening drawing schools, care being taken to insist upon their working from 
natural objects such as flowers and foliage." 

Technical Education Amongst the Alsace Oalico-Printers. 

From our own observation, as well as from the evidence giv3n before us by Mr. 
Haeftely, there is no doubt that a greater amount of scientific and especially of 
chemical knowledge exists in foreign calico-print works than in those of this country 
(see page 1 of evidence). The Alsace managers are invariably trained cnemists, 
and a special profession, that of colorist chemist, exists on the Continent, which 
has not yet obtained a firm footing in our own country. The necessity for supplant- 
ing the rule of thumb processes and pretended secrets of the old-fashioned color- 
mixer, by scientific knowledge of the materials with which they deal and of the 
reactions which they employ, is now becoming felt by all the better class of English 
calico-printers, and in many of these establishments at the present time technically 
trained and competent young men are found. Equal opportunities for the study of 
this branch of applied science exist at the present time in England to those found 
on the Continent, and there is no reason why the colorist chemist trained in Eng- 

30 Ed. Com. 



466 Report of the 

land should not become as efficient as the one educated in Alsace, so soon as the 
demand for, and the appreciation of his services is as great with us as it is abroad. 

Engineering and Maohine-making Works, Alsace. 

The director of the works informed us that they take great pains to select educated 
boys as apprentices. Most of them have gone through the Professional School at 
Mulhouse, and have there learned the use of tools, obtaining in many instances an 
excellent preliminary training in theoretical engineering. They give a decided 
preference to boys from this school. The foreman who conducted us over the works, 
himself a student from the polytechnic at Zurich, confirmed the statement 



Industrial Education Commission. 



467 



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468 E-EPOKT OF THE 



Higher Technical Instruction for Employers, Managers, Etc. 



The Ecole Oeotrale des Arts et Manufactures of Paris. 

Tkis important and well-known institution is designed to prepare 
students for the professions of civil and mechanical engineering, met- 
allurgy and manufacturing chemistry. It was founded in the year 
lo26, chiefly through the interest of M. Dumas, (whose recent death 
science has to deplore), and is essentially a private and self support- 
ing establishment, not receiving any grant from Government, and 
depending entirely on the fees of the pupils, thus standing in striking 
contrast to other similar institutions on the continent. It has, 
however, lately been attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and 
Commerce. The annual receipts amount to £20,640 ($103,200), 
and the disbursements to about £17,836 ($89,180), the difference 
being paid over to the new building fund. The school is at present 
located in an old building in the Rue des Ooutures St. Gervais, totally 
inadequate to its needs, but it is shortly to be transferred to splendid 
premises about to be built near the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, 
chiefly at the Government expense, though partly also at that of the 
school. 

There is a very strict entrance examination and great competition 
for the vacant places ; of the 540 candidates who applied in the year 
1881 only 220 were admitted. None of the students are boarded in 
the establishment. 

The regular course extends over three years, and diplomas are 
given to the students at the end of the course, after passing a very 
severe examination and working out a thesis. A strict system of con- 
tinuous examination and marking is carried out, the work which 
each student does being entered carefully by each examiner, and the 
results of the whole three years' work are added up ; the special grade 
of the diploma being given according to the result of this system of 
marking. 

The first year's course consists of instruction in general science, 
without much applied science, and is similar to that given in the 
E cole Polytechnic, whilst in the second and third years the teaching 
is especially directed to applied science, and is similar to that given 
in the E'cole des Mines. The later instruction has special reference to 
the practical applications of each subject. The student who fails to 
gain his diploma at the end of the third year, may pass the examina- 
tion without reentering the school, at any period within six years 
after leaving the institution. 

The peculiarity of the education of this school is, that the instruc- 
tion is much the same for all students, and that there is scarcely any 



Industrial Education Commission. 469 

specialization of the studies in accordance with the proposed career 
of the student. The difference is mainly shown, as hereafter ex- 
plained, in the thesis or ^'' projeV which the student prepares during 
the last year. 

Each of the 600 students pays £32 ($160) per year, and the gov- 
erning body of the school manages the whole of its financial and 
other concerns. There are 30 professors attached to the institution, the 
chiefs of departments receiving £300 ($1,500) per annum, the others 
£4 ($20) for each hour of lecture. In addition there are two direc- 
tors of studies and 30 tutors and assistant lecturers. The students on 
leaving the school, and after having gone through its very severe dis- 
cipline, are glad to get situations of £72 to £80 ($360 to $400) per 
year. The Director, M. Solignac (whose salary is $2,000 per annum), 
furnished the Commissioners with a list of the present positions of 
all the pupils since the beginning of the school.* A large number of 
manufacturers send their sons to the E'cole Centrale. 

One of the most interesting features in the scheme of education in 
the E cole Centrale is the system of theses, which are written by the 
students at the end of the third year. The courses of instruction on 
which these theses are founded are divided into mechanics, metal- 
lurgy, technical chemistry and engineering. Each student takes up 
one or other of these subjects for his thesis, as he deems fit, although 
the three years' course of instruction is not confined to any one of 
these branches, but comprises the subjects of all. The Commission- 
ers inspected several of the theses of the outgoing students of former 
years, in each of the above departments, and were much struck 
with the detailed character of the work, and especially with the com- 
pleteness of the drawings. The students are allowed to work at home, 
but have to produce the calculations, descriptions and drawings, 
within one month from the time at which the subject is given out, and 
the whole work is carefully examined by a council of professors, the 
student being examined on the details of his thesis. 

Programme of the E^cole Centrale des Arts etManufactures, Paris. 

First Year. 

Ntiifiber of 
Lessons. 

Mathematical Analysis (Differential and Intergral Calculus), . 30 

Kinematics and General Mechanics, 52 

Descriptive Geometry, 60 

General Physics (Heat, Electricity, Magnetism, Acoustics and 

Optics), 60 

General Chemistry (Metalloids, Metals and Organic Substances), €0 

Mineralogy and Geology, 30 

*See the Annual of the Friendly Association of Old Students of the School from 1832-1880, pub- 
lished by the Association at the E'cole Centrale in the Rue des Coutures St. Gervais, giving- an ac- 
count of the employment and position of all the old pupils of the school. 



Number of 



470 Report of the 



Biology (Zoology and Botany), 35 

Machine Construction, 20 

Architecture, . 24 

Second Year. 

Applied Mechanics (Theory), 60 

Applied Mechanics of Construction (Resistance Appliquee), . . 22 

Construction and erection of machinery, 52 

Industrial i:*hyslcs (Heat, Gas, Ventilation), 45 

Principles of the Steam Engine, 35 

Analytical Chemistry, . " . 50 

Technology (Metals, Colours and Dyes, Pottery and Glass), . . 36 

Mining (1st part), 25 

Civil Architecture and Construction, 54 

Zootechny, 20 

Phytotechny, 20 

Industrial Legislation, 30 

Third Year, 

Applied Mechanics, 60 

Construction and Erection of Machinery, . 55 

Industrial Chemistry, 45 

General Metallurgy and the Metallurgy of Iron, , 52 to 55 

Mining (2d part), 15 

Public Works, 60 

Railways, 60 

Rural Economy, • • • ^^ 

Note.— During each year the pupils have to prepare designs and drawings, and to work in the 
laboratory under the guidance of the professors. 



Industrial Education Commission. 471 



II. GERMANY. 

It has seemed to the Commission that the space at its disposal for 
this and some other countries could be most profitably used by pre- 
senting extracts from the report of the British Koyal Commission, 
covering a number of the most important points of inquiry, without 
regard to a systematic order, but all bearing upon the double ques- 
tion of methods and results. For the sake of avoiding the annoyance 
of frequent breaks in the text, separate passages have been brought 
together, but in no case, it is believed, in such a way as to color a 
statement of fact or opinion as presented by the Royal Commission. 

(a) Polytechnic Schools or Technical Universities of Germany, etc. 

The great impulse which was given to engineering and manufac- 
tures some 40 or 50 years ago by the formation of railways and the 
establishment of factories throughout Europe, and the demand which 
arose for highly skilled assistants, owing to the widespread introduc- 
tion of the steam engine and other mechanical inventions depending 
upon it, gave rise in Germany and Switzerland to the creation of High 
Schools, in which the necessary scientific training with its practical 
applications could be imparted, so that by this means a body of men 
might be educated in such a way as to make it possible for Continental 
states to compete with the work-shop-trained engineers of England. 

The numerous Universities of Germany did not furnish instruction 
of a sufficiently practical character, nor were their authorities willing 
to admit within their walls a class of men who would be likely to 
devote themselves especially to industrial pursuits ; nor, again, would 
they lower or alter the standard required from University students 
on entrance, as ascertained by the ''leaving examination" of the 
classical school. Moreover, they did not care to permit any system 
of fixed curricula and examinations in lieu of their accustomed plan 
of LeJiT und Lern Freiheit. It must also be remembered, moreover, 
that at this time the practical teaching, even of the pure physical 
sciences, was only in its infancy in the university. 

The requirements for instruction adapted to the necessities of the 
time became so urgent that each State vied with the others in the 
extent and magnificence of its buildings for Polytechnic Schools, as 
as also in the grants voted for the maintenance of those institutions. 

The following is a list of the principal schools : 
(1.) The Federal Polytechnic School of Zurich.* 
(2.) The Polytechnic School at Munich. 
(3.) The Polytechnic School at Vienna. 

* Another term for " Polytechnic " is Technical High School, which is equivalent In English 
to Technical University. 



472 Report of the 

(4.) The Polytechnic School at Stuttgart. 

(5.) The Polytechnic School at Dresden. 

(6.) The Polytechnic School at Hanover. 

(7.) The Polytechnic School at Carlsruhe. 

(8.) The Polytechnic School at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). 

(9.) The Technical High School of Berlin (for which a new building 

is now in course of erection at Gharlottenhurg). 
(10.) The Polytechnic School, Delft. 
(11.) The Polytechnic School of Moscow. 

These schools have been built at a cost of not less than three mil- 
lions sterling ($15,000,000), and are maintained at an annual cost of 
over £200,000 ($1,000,000). 

We proceed to give a few particulars respecting these institutions, 
all of which, with the exception of that at Moscow, have been visited 
by the Commissioners. 

(1.) The Zurich Polytechnic School. — The Federal Polytechnic 
School of Zurich, which is one of the largest as well as one of the 
most successful of its kind, was established by the Swiss Confedera- 
tion in 1854, and the building has since been considerably enlarged 
and extended. This noble edifice forms one of the principal features 
of Zurich, standing on a commanding eminence above the city. The 
institution comprises seven special schools : 
(1.) The architectural school, with 3 years' course. 
(2.) The civil engineering school, with 3^ years' course. 
(3.) The mechanical engineering school, with 3 years' course. 
(4.) The school of chemical technology (including pharmacy), with 

3 years' course. 
(5.) The school of agriculture and forestry, forming two sub-sections, 

with a course of 2| years. 
(6.) The normal school, destined to educate special teachers for 
mathematics and natural science, also forming two sub-sections. 
(7.) School of philosophical and political sciencOc 

In addition to these, there is a preparatory mathematical course, 
for those students who are not able to pass the entrance examination 
required in this subject, to admit them to any one of the above 

courses. 

********* 

To give an idea of the completeness and extent of this institution, 
it will be sufficient to state that there are upwards of 200 distinct 
courses of lectures, given by 45 professors and 13 assistants, not 
counting the tutors, the curators of the museums, and the servants 
employed in the establishment. 

Many names, well known in science and literature, have been in 
the past, or are at present connected with this great institution. 

The budget of the school for 1876 was as follows : 



Industrial Education Commission. 473 

Annual federal subvention, £13,880 

Annual subvention of the canton ol Zurich, 640 

Subvention of the canton and the town of Zurich for the 

purposes of the natural history collection, 176 

Fees paid by students, . 3 , 794 

The total annual expenditure being a little under £20,000 ($92,- 
450). 

In addition to this a considerable sum has been bequeathed to the 
institution, amounting to a total of nearly £20,000 ($100,000), and 
within the last few months, a sum of £50,000 (about $250,000), has 
been voted by the Federal Council for the extension of the chemical 
laboratories. 

The regular students must have attaied the age of 18, and must 
either produce certificates of good conduct, and of having passed 
through the necessary preliminary studies, or must undergo an en- 
trance examination, producing specimens of their own drawing. 
There were in the winter semester of the year 1880-81, 488 students 
and 253 auditors, total, 741 ; and in the year 1881-82, the total num- 
ber was 685. 

For a complete course of instruction in any one department the fee 
is £4 ($20) for the semester. The winter semester lasts from October 
to March, and the summer semester from April to August. In addi- 
tion, £2 ($10) is charged for each of the laboratories in the winter 
semester and £1 16^. (about $9) in the summer. Thus the total cost 
to a student in the chemical department, including laboratory prac- 
tice, does not exceed £12 (about $60) per annum. 

The Department of civil engineering at the Zurich Polytechnic, is 
one of the most important in the school, and was founded in the 
year 1855, together with the schools of mechanical engineering and 
chemistry. 

The course of instruction extends over a period of three and a half 
years (seven sessions), and begins each year in October. 

For admission to this Department the candidate has to pass an ex- 
amination in mathematics, mechanics, physics and drawing, or to 
show certificates from a former school that he possesses the required 
proficiency in these subjects. Intending students may enter either 
as regular students (Schiiler) or as auditors (Zuhorer). The former 
are bound to attend all the obligatory courses of lectures, and pay 
£4 ($20) as a fee for the whole year; auditors can obtain permission 
from the professors to attend the courses they wish, and pay a fee of 
four shillings (about $1) a session for each lecture or hour's drawing 
they attend in a week. The great difi'erence in the expense makes 
the number of auditors very small. 

The first three sessions are occupied almost entirely with theoretical 
subjects, such as pure mathematics (diff"erential and integral calculus, 
differential equations, and higher analytical geometry), descriptive 



474 Report of the 

geometry, with drawing, mechanics and physics treated mathemati- 
cally. These subjects are attended also by the students of the Mathe- 
matical School, and are, in the opinion of some, rather too exhaus- 
tively treated for students of engineering. For instance, the descrip- 
tive geometry course extends over three sessions, with three or four 
lectures a week, and includes four hours' obligatory drawing per 
week for the first two sessions. The four hours' drawing per week is 
insufiicient to finish the problems given, and often 15 to 20 hours in a 
week have to be spent in solving problems in descriptive geometry. 
The theories expounded in the third session are of a still more ad- 
vanced character. 

Besides these subjects there are in the first three sessions several 
short courses on more practical subjects, e. g.^ elementary architec- 
ture, petrology, applied geology, chemistry of building materials, and 
surveying and surveying instruments. 

In the fourth session the lectures on geopraphical statics are com- 
menced, a knowledge of which is very important in bridge-designing. 
The system of teaching statics mainly by geometrical construction 
has hitherto been little employed in England and France in practical 
designing, but it is well known in Germany and Italy. 

The last two years of the course include lectures on various branches 
of engineering, tunnels, stone and iron bridges, railways, canals, 
roads, geodesy, etc., besides a great amount of drawing and designing 
in these subjects. There are also courses of practical surveying, and 
astronomy, with observatory practice. 

In all the subjects there are from time to time, usually weekly, 
short viva voce examinations, and problems are set to be solved out of 
hours, so that the system of teaching is very thorough. Diplomas of 
proficiency are given to students who pass the special examinations 
held at the end of the fourth and seventh sessions. 

The average number of students in civil engineering is about 110, 
and is a great falling-ofF from the number in the years 1870-77, which 
averaged about 260. The fact that the number of non- Swiss students 
is about 70 per cent, of the whole is a proof of the wide-spread repu- 
tation of the school. The foreigners are from all parts of Europe, 
especially Austria and Hungary, as well as from North and South 
America (Brazil). 

An important feature of the institution is the number and variety 
of the laboratories, libraries, museums and collections of apparatus 
and objects of scientific and artistic interest, which the institution 
possesses, of which the following is a list : 

1. Several libraries — {a) belonging to the school, (b) to the canton 

and (c) to the town of Zurich. These latter have been placed 
at the service of the students. 

2. Various collections belonging to the engineering and architectural 

divisions, consisting of models, instruments, etc. 



Industrial Education Commission. 475 

3. A collection of plaster casts of architectural ornaments. 

4. A collection of specimens of construction and of materials used 

in building. 

5. A collection of antique vases. 

6. A collection of engravings, about 24,000 in number. 

7. A collection of geometrical instruments. 

8. A collection of models of machinery. 

9. A collection of tools and models for the section of applied me- 

chanical technology. 

10. A collection of models and raw and finished products for the sec- 

tion of chemical technology. 

11. A collection of mathematical and geometrical models. 

12. A collection of interesting specimens, tools, etc., relating to 

forestry. 

13. A collection of models, implements and produce in all depart- 

ments of agriculture. 

14. Collections of specimens relating to natural history, zoology, bot- 

any, mineralogy, geology, palaeontology and entomology. 

15. An archaeological collection. 

16. A workshop for molding and casting in clay and plaster. 

17. A workshop for metal work, 

18. Laboratories for instr'iction in theoretical and applied chemistry. 

19. A special laboratory for agricultural chemistry. 

20. A cabinet of physical apparatus and a physical laboratory. 

21. An institute of vegetable physiology, comprising a room for 

microscopic researches, a physiological laboratory, botanical 
collections and hothouses. 

22. A botanical garden, with a museum for the general and botanical 

collections. 

In common with the Polytechnic Schools of Germany, there is no 
manual instruction in workmanship of a mechanical character. 

The practical instruction in each department is of a strictly scien- 
tific nature. Thus, for example in chemistry, the instruction given 
in Prof. Victor Meyer's laboratory is identical with that given ia the 
University laboratories of Germany. But after passing through the 
course of pure chemistry, including both laboratory practice and lec- 
tures, the student may proceed to the classes and laboratory work of 
the professor of applied chemistry, Dr. Lunge; the practical work con- 
sisting chiefly in the preparation of chemical products. The labora- 
tories both of physics and of chemistry are antiquated, and are alto- 
gether insufficient for the present requirements of the students. Large 
extensions in this respect are about to be made, the sums voted for 
this purpose amounting, as already stated, to £50,000 ($250,000). 

The remark which has been made with regard to chemistry applies 
also to the physical teaching, namely, that the instruction is not 
specially adapted to any particular industrial work, but is of a general 



476 E-EPORT OF THE 

and purely scientific character. In some of the Polytechnic Schools, 
notably in Munich and in Stuttgart, practical laboratory instruction 
in physics has only been recently introduced, and as yet on a small 
scale : even in these cases the instruction is strictly scientific and is not 
especially adapted to any branch of electrical engineering, or to any 
other industry to which a knowledge of physics might be applied. In 
Dr. Weber's physical laboratory at Zurich, it is true, a small number 
of students receive practical instruction in exact electrical measure- 
ments, in testing of resistances, etc., but no courses of a technical 
character have at present been introduced into this department of the 
Polytechnic. 

This renowned school has from its very commencement endeavored 
to impart the greatest possible extent of scientific instruction in each 
of its departments, and its efforts have been to direct thought and 
research of the highest kind in their applications to industrial pur- 
suits, and thus to bring about the necessary mutual interchange of 
ideas between science and practice ; and it has been so far sucessful 
that students have come to it from all parts of the world. The Com- 
missioners had the opportunity of judging of the advantages which it 
has bestowed, not only upon Switzerland, but also upon Germany, by 
the number of thoroughly trained scientific men who have been edu- 
cated within its walls and who are now holding important positions 
in various industrial establishments which the Commissioners have 
visited. 



(b) Report on Technical Training in Prussia, by Herr Von Puttkammer. 

The following is a resume of a Report on the Organization of 
Technical Instruction in Prussia, prepared for the British Commission 
by Herr von Puttkammer. 

In the first place, it appears that no system has yet been developed 
for the technical instruction of foremen and workmen in Prussia. 
Such arrangements as exist, difi'er in various places, and cannot be re- 
garded as permanent. Indeed it may be said that by far the larger 
proportion of skilled artisans, foremen and operatives in Prussia have 
no opportunity aftorded them, and, it may be added, often exhibit no 
desire to obtain further information than they have gained in the 
primary school, where the instruction in drawing, of such special im- 
portance to the future artisan, has hitherto not received the attention 
it deserves. An improvement in this direction is contemplated, but 
its execution will be tedious and costly. 

Secondly, the technical education of the persons intending to be- 
come masters and managers of industrial establishments has been 
placed in Prussia on a systematic basis. This is especially the case 



Industrial Education Commission. 477 

for the subjects of mechanical and civil engineering, chemistry and 
architecture, and for this purpose, technical high schools of Berlin, 
Hanover and Aachen have been established, the cost of these es- 
tablishments being borne solely by the State. All persons employed 
in the Civil Service in the branches of engineering or architecture are 
obliged to attend one or other of the above schools, and are required 
to pass examinations in the several courses of study, whilst entrance 
to the technical high schools is allowed only to those who can present 
the leaving certificate from a gymnasium, Real gymnasium, or an 
upper Real school, indicating the proper completion of a strict pre- 
liminary training. 

Side by side with this advanced system of technical instruction in 
Prussia, a number of "■ Real " and " Trade " schools exist. These per- 
form the functions of giving a training of a less advanced type avail- 
able for persons in the position of sub- managers, or for students of 
secondary rank. The higher class of these schools are called upper 
real schools, and include a course of instruction spread over nine 
years ; others, of a somewhat lower type, have courses lasting for six 
or seven years; these latter are termed burgher schools, and in them 
a general education is given. For carrying on the technical training 
of pupils from these, or from the primary schools, or of persons al- 
ready apprenticed or engaged in trade, a class of schools known as 
•' trade schools " (Fachschulen) exists. The number of these institu- 
tions in Prussia is but small, and efforts recently made for their in- 
crease and improvement have not been so successful as might be 
wished, the reason being that the locality is obliged to defray the cost 
of buildings, and half the annual expenses not covered by school fees. 
The fact that the total annual cost to the State of these schools does 
not exceed £18,000 ($90,000) proves that they can neither be numer- 
ous or of an elaborate character. 

The technical schools proper of Prussia include the following : 
(a.) Eight building schools in Berlin, Nieuberg, Eikernforde, Bres- 

lau, Hoxter and Idstein. 
(h.) One school for machine construction at Einbeck. 
(c) Four weaving schools at Crefeld, Mulheim and Einbeck. 
(d.) A training school for basket makers at Heinsberg. 
(e.) A trade school for pottery at Hohr. 

(f.) A trade school for workers in metal at Iserlohn and another at 
Remsheid. 

In addition to these special schools, about 10 or 12 trade drawing 
schools exist in various towns, as well as trade continuation schools 
for apprentices and artisans under 18 years of age, who can, by local 
enactment, be compelled to attend these schools, their employers 
being bound to grant them the necessary time, and attendance at such 
obligatory schools is recognized by the State. In cases where the 
obligatory attendance is enforced, the State pays half the expenses, 



478 Report of the 

but the total yearly amount of State grant is not more than £8,000 
($40,000). The most recent additions to this class of school are the 
artisan school in Berlin, and the Sunday and evening school at Bres- 
lau. In neither of these, however, is the attendance compulsory, and 
the number of pupils in the classes last winter was 700 and 400 
respectively. 

Other more special technical institutions are the agricultural schools, 
the educational workshops of the State Railways, the navigation 
schools and the higher mining schools. Each of these sets of schools 
is placed under the direction of the Departmental Ministry. Of 561 
apprentices in the government railway workshops, 277 attended the 
special schools established for their benefit. Of the navigation 
schools about 14 exist. They provide a suitable training for persons 
entering the merchant service, assisting them in obtaining the knowl- 
edge requisite for passing the prescribed examinations for steersmen. 
No schools for the education of mates or petty officers exist in Prus- 
sia. Seven mining schools proper exist in Prussia, viz : in Tarnowitz, 
Eisleben, Bochum, Siegen, Dillenberg, Saarbriicken and Clausthal, 
whilst five preparatory or inferior schools for a lower grade of miners 
are established in the mining centres. 

A Royal Commission on technical instruction in Prussia is now sit- 
ting for the purpose of receiving communications on the development 
of the opportunities for technical instruction. 



(c) General Review of Polytechiiic Schools. 

Having concluded our report on the Polytechnic schools of Ger- 
many, we pass to certain important general considerations respecting 
the higher scientific and technical education in that country. In the 
first place, the question as to the value of the training at the Poly- 
technic school, as compared with that given at the University, and 
especially as to how far the division into purely scientific subjects as 
taught in the Universities, and applied science as taught in the Poly- 
technic Schools of Germany, is a wise or advisable arrangement, as 
also of what is the best preliminary training for Polytechnic students, 
has been the subject of much discussion, and the Commissioners have 
been at the pains of obtaining opinions on this subject from a num- 
ber of distinguished men connected with the Universities and also 
with the Polytechnics. 

It may be mentioned that in the Polytechnics of Germany there is 
accommodation for about 6,000 students, whilst the total attendance is 
little more than 2,000, and the annual cost to the State of each stu- 
dent, exclusive of interest on capital, is about £100 ($500). This ap- 
parently unnecessary extension of the Polytechnic schools in that 



Industrial Education Commission. 479 

country is partially accounted for by the fact that, when they were 
originally erected, Germany consisted of several independent states 
which have since been united in the German Empire. 

To the multiplication of these Polytechnics, and to the small cost 
of a higher or University education, may be ascribed the general dif- 
fusion of a high scientific knowledge in Germany, its appreciation by 
all classes of persons, and the adequate supply of men competent, so 
far as theory is concerned, to take the place of managers and super- 
intendents of industrial works, as well as of teachers in technical and 
other schools. 

In England there is still a great want of this last class of persons ; 
and whether schools of practical and applied science be affiliated to 
the University, or exist separately and independently as in other 
countries, it is very important that facilities should be offered to such 
selected pupils from schools of lower grade as may be competent to 
profit by it, to receive the highest scientific and technical instruction, 
gratuitously, or at a small cost, in order that this country may be bet- 
ter supplied than it is at present with competent instructors. 

As regards the kind of training that will best fit a youth to become 
the head of an industrial concern, opinions both here and abroad 
differ considerably ; but in the value of the education given in the 
German Polytechnics as a part of the training of engineers, most 
competent authorities on the Continent appear to agree. 

In dealing with the superior education of those destined to become 
employers or proprietors of large industrial concerns in Germany and 
Switzerland, we must state in conclusion that the Gymnasia and 
Universities, in spite of the existence of the numerous Techninal 
High Schools, still serve to train probably the larger portion of those 
who are to take the lead in manufacturing industries, and that, con- 
sequently, the persons so educated cannot be said to receive any 
technical training in the school. The University is the natural termi- 
nation of the career of the student entering the Gymnasium, which 
is par excellence the school of the higher and upper middle ranks of 
society on the Continent; and, where time and money are of secondary 
importance, no education is deemed to have been properly completed 
without a few years passed at one or other of the numerous Universi- 
ties. 

There are in all four and twenty Universities in the German Em- 
pire, five in Switzerland, nine in Austria, and the German University 
of Dorpat in Russia, and the total number of students who are being 
trained in them is little short of 35,000. In the first rank, as regards 
the number of those under instruction, stands the University of 
Berlin with the enormous total of 4,995 students, together with 3,900 
non-matriculated auditors. Leipsic comes second, with a total of 
3,166 students and 3,111 auditors, while Munich has respectively 2,049 
students and 2,017 auditors. In the next class are the important and 



480 Keport of the 

flourishing Universities of Breslau, 1,682 students ; Halle, 1,414 stu- 
dents; Tiibingen, 1,414; Bonn, 1,102; Gottingen, 1,096, and Wiirz- 
burg, 1,091, while the Russian University of Dorpat numbers 1,277 
students, and the Austrian University of Lemberg is returned at 
1,011. The numbers at Vienna and Pesth are not stated, but they 
probably considerably exceed those at Lemberg. The staff of pro- 
fessors for this immense body of students is equally remarkable. 
Thus at Vienna, there are in all 272 on the teaching body, including 
however, 127 honorary academical professors. At Berlin, the total 
teaching staff numbers 241 ; at Leipsic, 171 ; Prague, 150 ; Pesth, 143 ; 
Munich, 141 ; Breslau, 123 ; Gottingen, 119 ; Bonn, 110 and Heidel- 
berg, 109. 

To give an idea of the large sums spent by the German Govern- 
ments on the scientific departments of their State Universities, it may 
suffice to mention the cost of a few of the departments of the new 
University of Strasburg. The total outlay on the buildings of this 
University, either now complete, in process of erection or planned, is 
£600,000 ($3,000,000). The department of botany has had a sum of 
£20,000 ($100,000) devoted to it; that of physics, £30,000 ($150,000); 
that of chemistry, including a residence for the director, £35,000 
($175,000). These items include the permanent fittings of the various 
laboratories, but not the apparatus and collections which have been 
partly inherited from former years, and are partly purchased from the 
annual allowances of the various departments. 

The yearly budget of the chemical department amounts to £1,335 
($6,675), not including either the salaries of the two professors (about 
$4,000) or the cost of heating and lighting, which are defrayed by the 
University. It includes the salaries of five assistants (about $1,275) 
and the wages of four servants ($1,300), leaving a sum of £820 
($4,100) to meet the general working expenses of the departments, 
including the purchase of chemicals, apparatus, specimens, etc. The 
number of students working in the chemical laboratories at Strasburg 
is about 100. 



(d) Higher Elementary Teclinical Schools in Germany. 

The Commissioners have not found in Germany any schools which 
exactly correspond to the professional schools of France, already de- 
scribed. There have existed, however, since 1850, a number of 
schools known as Gewerbe Schulen (trade schools), originally intended 
to impart technical instruction to boys in training to become masters 
of small industries, foremen in works, etc. In these schools primary 
education is continued, and additional instruction is given in mathe- 
matics, descriptive geometry, drawing, elementary science and some 



Industrial Education Commission. i81 

modern language. In none of these schools is any attempt made to 
give workshop instruction. In most parts of Germany these schools 
are now known as Lower Real-schulen and lead up to the Industrial 
School of Bavaria, or the higher Secondary Keai School in other 
countries. 



(e) Apprenticeship Scliools in G-ermany. 

In most of the apprenticeship schools of Germany, that is, schools 
for the training of workmen or foremen, instruction in pure and ap- 
plied art combined with practical work in the shops forms an impor- 
tant feature of the curriculum. The earliest attempt to introduce 
schools of a technical character into Germany was due, as is well 
known, to the initiative of Dr. Yon Steinbeis, after the great Exhibi- 
tion of 1851. They have since spread over Southern Germany and 
Austria, and have recently been introduced into Prussia. Of these 
latter, one of the best arranged is the Royal Fach Schule of Iser- 
lohn^ in Westphalia, a district abounding in ironworks and collieries, 
this being the first school of the kind established in Prussia. It is a 
school in which industrial art adapted to metal work is combined with 
handicraft teaching. The Commissioners visited this school under the 
guidance of Dr. Reuter, who was formerly director of the engi- 
neering school at Komotau, and it was in consequence of the suc- 
cess of this and of the other trade schools in Austria that similar 
schools have begun to be established in Prussia. The school owes its 
origin to the want experienced by the manufacturers of the district of 
better preparatory instruction of the pupils who enter their works. 
It has been established only four years. The pupils of this school go 
through a three years' course, and are trained as designers, modellers, 
wood carvers, molders, founders, turners and pressers, chasers, en- 
gravers, gilders and etchers. The drawing copies for ornament are 
published by Yeith of Carlsruhe. The subjects of instruction are in 
part theoretical and in part practical. The theoretical instruction 
comprises drawing in all its branches, modelling in wax and clay, the 
elements of chemical and physical science, mathematics, German 
language, history of art, metal work and technology. The practical 
instruction includes lessons in the different departments of work 
which the pupil is likely to follow, each pupil being required to state 
on entry in which particular branch of the industry he is desirous of 
special training. The hours of instruction are, in the morning, from 
8 to 12 in the winter, and from 7 to 11 in the summer, and in the af- 
ternoon from to 2 to 6. In this, as in other technical schools, it may 
be noticed that the hours of instruction are much longer than in 
31 Ed. Com. 



482 Keport of the 

schools in which there is little or no practical work, the alternation of 
mental and bodily exercise enabling the pupil to apply himself to 
school work without fatigue for a greater number of hours than is 
possible where the instruction is theoretical only. 

The school is well fitted with workshops, having the necessary appli- 
ances including a six-horse-power gas engine, hydraulic press, a planing 
machine, a shaping machine from Chemnitz, as well as elaborate 
lathes for wood turning and metal turning, made in Vienna, England, 
Scotland and America. 

The curriculum of the school instruction is interesting as indicating 
the general scientific and artistic teaching which all the pupils undergo 
before devoting themselves more particularly to any branch of special 
practical work. 

Besides the day school, in which the pupils are engaged from 8 to 
10 hours, there is an evening school in which a course of instruction 
occupying three hours is given, comprising model and ornamental 
drawing, German, physics and arithmetic. The instruction in the 
evening school is intended for the workpeople in the numerous man- 
ufactories of the district, and is almost wholly theoretical. £500 
($2,500) was subscribed for apparatus, etc., by the leading manufac- 
turers of the district. The school budget is £850 ($4,250). 



(f ) Conversations on Artistic and Technical Instruction. 

The professors [Lange of Munich and Mayer of Nuremberg] stated 
that the conviction is universal throughout the country that the vari- 
ous art and technical schools are exercising a most important influence 
upon their manufacturing industries. In their belief, they can only 
meet the competition of their rivals in their own and other countries 
by training their workmen in taste and skill, and their industries will 
prosper in proportion as they keep up the efficiency of their schools, 
and spread their influence among the workers themselves. On all 
hands this movement is progressing, and they are compelled to strain 
every nerve in order not to fall behind. And what is the result? 
They can see a superior taste in every object made by hand, as an 
outcome of these schools ; and they they can now almost tell by the 
work, where the workman or designer has been trained. Taste has 
become almost like a man's handwriting, and they can recognize the 
man, or, at least, his school, in his work. The great Nuremberg crafts- 
men of old have not ceased to inspire their followers with some of 
their enthusiasm and noble feeling, although centuries have passed 
since they lived and worked in this city. The inhabitants are all 
proud of the old couplet — 

*' Nuremberg's hand 

Goes through every land ; " 



Industrial Education Commission. 483 

and they claim that it is no mere figure of speech. And, if the 
artistic supremacy of Nuremberg is not marked at present as in olden 
times, it is because of the spread of art culture in other communities. 
Other influences materially interfere with the localization of art in- 
dustries. In these days of quick and easy traveling, the lame of a 
school attracts students from a long distance, and clever students be- 
longing to a town in which a good school is located, often finds it ad- 
vantageous to remove to places less favoured, and there sell their 
cultivated talent to capitalists who can utilize it to their profit. Thus, 
not in Bavaria, or even in Germany only, but in many other parts of 
Europe, are designers and art workhaen, who have been trained at 
the schools of Nuremberg and Munich, who now enrich the industries 
of their new homes. 

The Kunstgewerbe schools of Munich and Nuremberg having been 
eminently successful in the training of industrial designers and art 
workmen, the professors were interrogated as to the methods adopted 
in the training of their students. They insisted that the student must 
first be taught to draw thoroughly, drawing being the language of his 
profession. '' The groundwork of all design that is worth anything 
is art. If the student has anj^ talent or art-feeling within him, his 
power of drawing will enable him to give it expression ; but, without 
thought and imagination, there can be no originality of design. Mere 
knowledge of drawing will not make a man a good artist any more 
than knowledge of language will make him a poet ; but designer and 
poet are helpless without the knowledge of the language by which 
their art can be expressed to others. Teachers need to study the 
peculiarities of their students, for all cannot be dressed in the same 
clothes, or combed with the same comb." 

The students are drawn from all classes of society, except the 
highest. Many who go through the full three years' courses are the 
sons of small manufacturers of artistic objects. In Germany, the 
proportion of men in small industries, or who have small workshops 
in their own homes, is very large, as compared with England. Many 
students, especially those connected with building and out-door trades, 
only come in the winter, when out-door work is often suspended. 
Some intend to become teachers, and, as there are no normal schools 
in Bavaria for training teachers of drawing, these high schools are, to 
some extent, utilized by them. Such students are required to go 
through the technical courses according to the school programme, and 
their numbers — attending the Munich and Nuremberg schools — are 
really decreasing. On being asked if any students besides those at- 
tending only in winter, support themselves while attending the classes, 
Professor Lange stated that Irom seven to eight per cent, of his stu- 
dents at Munich maybe called "half-timers," working outside the 
school a number of hours daily, often selling their designs or work in 
wood carving, modeling, glass or porcelain painting, etc., executed 



484 Eeport of the 

either in the school or out of it. At present the number of students 
of the artisan class, who have been engaged in practical work before 
coming to the schools, or who do practical work out of school hours, 
is increasing. Such students, in the opinion of both professors, are 
generally the most successiul. They come, as a rule, after two or 
three years' work, when they have begun to feel their deficiencies, 
and are really anxious to improve themselves. They may have, in 
the first instance, less expertness in drawing than the schoolboy of 16 
who has enjoyed continuous instruction from his childhood, but, hav- 
ing had experience of practical work in a definite trade, they know 
what they want to learn, and they work with greater care and persever- 
ance. One of the professors, in 1876, attended a congress of professors 
and promoters of design and art work, and the question was seriously 
discussed as to whether, in the first place, students should not be re- 
quired to work at some trade for about two years before coming to 
the Kunstgewerbe school ; and, in the second, whether apprentices 
engaged in art work should not be compelled to attend the school 
also. The congress was unanimous as to the importance of the dual 
principle, that the designer should know something of practical work, 
and that the practical workman something of design, but could not 
see its way to make it compulsory. At the Nuremberg school there 
are, in winter, 120 students who earn their livelihood by day, and 
study art in the evening. Some of the most valuable work in the 
school is executed by these students. 

The Kunstgewerbe schools of Bavaria are greatly helped by the 
ordinary Fortbildung or night schools, which apprentices are required 
to attend during the evenings and on Sundays. These schools are 
almost invariably free; they supplement and continue the education 
received in the day schools, and are taken advantage of by middle- 
aged as well as young men, desirous of improvement. They are 
technical in the truest sense of the word ; science and drawing are 
taught, in their bearing upon upon the industries of the students. 
The Fortbildung schools are nurseries which are constantly sending 
earnest students to the Kunstgewerbe schools, where their particular 
tastes are cultivated in the direction in which they can be made most 
useful. But for these intermediate schools, some of the cleverest 
designers and best art workmen would never have been discovered, 
for they would not have been induced to take the first steps in art 
culture, by which alone their talent was brought to light. The 
professors drew our attention to the very excellent examples of model- 
ing, wood-carving, and smiths' and mechanics' work sent to the ex- 
hibition by several of the Fortbildung schools of Bavaria, work which, 
had it been done by any provincial art school in England, would have 
materially enhanced its reputation. 

In olden times every workshop was a school, and the ^' werkmeister" 
was an artist as well as a handicraftsman. The apprentice went 



Industrial Education Commission. 485 

though his course of seven years' apprenticeship and learned every 
detail of his master's business. All this has now changed, the work- 
men is ceasing to learn his trade. What with the exigencies of the 
military system, and the increasing division of labor, the training of 
the workmen in the old-fashioned way is impossible; he may learn a 
part of a trade in the workshop, but he seldom learns the whole of it. 
It is therefore all the more important that the school should step in 
and supply, as far as possible, the defects of our industrial system. 
Each trade has its theoretical as well as its practical side, and, con- 
sidering that the workshop does less for the training of the apprentice 
than before, it is necessary that the school should do its part as thor- 
oughly and systematically as possible. These schools represent the 
faith of the people, expressed on ail hands, and supported by daily 
experience, that taste is one of the most important factors in indus- 
try. From nearly every trade the cry comes for more taste, more 
skill. It is not now a mere sentiment, that prompts governments and 
municipalities to make great sacrifices for these schools. They feel 
that the prosperitj^ of their industries depends entirely upon the 
cheapness and attractiveness of their productions, and although the 
workshop may do something for the former, the latter depends upon 
the taste and skill of the employer, foreman, or artisan. As practical 
evidences of their success, these gentlemen conducted us over some 
departments of the Exhibition, in which the influence of their schools 
upon the workmanship of countless objects of manufacture was un- 
mistakable. 



(g) Influence of Technical Training on the Chemical Color Industry of 
Germany and Switzerland. 

Among the coal tar color works visited by the Commissioners, were 
those erected on the banks of the Rhine, at Basle, by Messrs. Bind- 
schedler and Busch. These works, though far less extensive than 
those of Messrs. Meister, Lucius and Brtining, at Hochst, or of the 
Baden Aniline and Soda Works, at Ludwigshafen, are carried on in a 
no less scientific spirit, and the general method of working adopted 
in all these establishments is identical. 

The first principle which guides the commercial heads of all the 
Continental colour works, is the absolute necessity of having highly 
trained scientific chemists, not only at the head of the works, but at 
the head of every department of the works where a special manufac- 
ture is being carried on. In this respect this method of working 
stands in absolute contrast to that too often adopted in chemical 
works in this country, where the control of the processes is left in the 



486 Report of the 

hands of men whose only rule is that of the thumb, and whose only- 
knowledge is that bequeathed to them by their fathers. 

On entering the works of Messrs. Bindschedler and Busch, one is 
struck in the first place with the adaptation of means to ends, wilh 
the substantially built, well-lighted, well- ventilated workshops, and 
above all, with the all-prevading cleanliness and neatness. But it is 
not of these things that we now desire to speak, but rather of the 
method by which their business is conducted. In the first place, then, 
the scientific director (Dr. Bindschedler) is a thoroughly educated 
chemist, cognizant of, and able to make use of the discoveries emanat- 
ing from the various scientific laboratories of the world. Under him 
are three scientific chemists, to each of whom is intrusted one of the 
three mam departments into which the works are divided. Each of 
these head chemists, who have in this instance enjoyed a thorough 
training in the Zurich Polytechnic, has several assistant chemists 
placed under him, and all these are gentlemen who have had a theo- 
retical education in either a German University or in a Polytechnic 
School. 

An important part of the system has now to be noticed, viz : That 
directly under these scientific assistants come the common workmen, 
who have, of course, no knowledge whatever of scientific principles, 
and who are, in fact, simple machines, acting under the will of a 
superior intelligence. The many and great advantages of this ar- 
rangement are patent to all ; and the fact of having men of education 
and refinement in positions of the kind, renders the foreign manufac- 
turer who adopts this system less liable to annoyance and loss (from 
sources which we need not more nearly specify) than his English 
competitor, who works on a diff'erent plan. 

So much for the personnel of the works. Now for the mode in 
which they carry on their work. To begin at the beginning, we find 
no less than ten well-equipped, airy, experimental laboratories in 
these works, perfectly distrinct from the workshops where the manu- 
facturing processes are carried on. In these len laboratories the chief 
departmental chemists and their assistants work out their investiga- 
tions respecting the production of new coloring matters, or the more 
economic manufacture of old ones. To assist them in their work, a 
complete scientific library is at hand, containing all the newest re- 
searches, for these, as we have said, form the material out of which 
the color-chemist builds up his manufacture, and no sooner do the 
results appear of a perhaps purely scientific research which may pos- 
sibly yield practical issues, than the works-chemist seizes on them and 
repeats these experiments, modifying and altering them so as at last 
to bring them within the charmed circle of financial success. 

Thanks to Dr. Bindschedler, we are able to quote a specially repre- 
sentative case, and a clear description of one such case is worth a host 
of generalities. Through the original investigations of Messrs. Emil 



Industrial Education Commission. 487 

and Otto Fischer, the attention of the manufacturer was drawn to the 
leuco or colorless base obtained by the action of benzaldehyde on 
dimethylaniline, inasmuch as they stated that the salts of these color- 
less bases become green on exposure to air. Founded on these obser- 
vations, an endeavor was made to effect the practical manufacture of 
a green coloring matter by oxidation of these colorless bodies. In 
order to attain the desired end, the following investigations had to be 
made by the chemist and his assistants who were to conduct the 
operations : 

(1.) A cheap method had to be found for manufacturing benzalde- 
hyde. 
(2). A profitable mode of making the leuco-base had to be worked 

out. 
(3.) The proper oxydizing agents and their best method of applica- 
tion had to be determined. 
(4.) The best method of purifying and of crystalizing the green color- 
ing matter had to be discovered. 
The laboratory experiments on the above points having proved so 
far successful as to give prospects of good results, operations on a 
somewhat larger scale were started, and these yielding a satisfactory 
issue, the manufacture proper of the coloring matter, now well known 
as malachite green, on the technical scale was commenced ; all the 
operations being watched by, and constantly being under the con- 
trol of the chemists. But even now their scientific work is by no 
means ended. Continuous laboratory experiments go on for the pur- 
pose of finding improvements in the mode of manufacture. Thus, 
for example, the improved yield, both as to quality and quantity of 
the benzaldehyde is a matter of investigation. Again, the synthetic 
production of the pure leuco-base by a more direct process is sought 
for, so far as to get rid of loss in working, and to obtain a yield as 
close as possible to that pointed out by theory. In the same way im- 
provements in the materials used for oxidation, and in their applica- 
tion, are made, so as to aff'ect the oxidation quantitatively, without 
the formation of by-products. Lastly, the action of various solvents 
is examined, so as to obtain the best form of the crystallized coloring 
matter. As indicating the value of these improvements made after 
the color became a marketable article, it is only necessary to state 
that the price of the crystallized oxalate has been reduced from £2 
($10) to £1 4s. ($6) per kilo. 



488 Report of the 

(h) Influence of Technical Training on the Beet-sugar Manufacture. 

Probably no more striking illustration of the rise of a successful and 
most important iadustry depending upon the application of the scien- 
tific principles of engineering and chemistry can be found than in the 
Continental beet-root sugar manufacture. The increase in the con- 
sumption of sugar in this country has been very great. In 1843 it 
amounted to 200,000 tons; this figure was doubled in 1854; in 1874 it 
reached 850,000 tons, and in 1882, 1,000,000 tons of sugar were con- 
sumed in the United Kingdom. Of these quantities in 1870, 165,000 
tons consisted of beet-root sugar, whilst in 1882, the total was over 
400,000 tons, valued at £10,000,000 ($50,000,000). The whole of this 
amount is imported from Belgium, France and Germany, as no beet- 
root sugar is manufactured in this country. 

To show the extent and growth of the Continental industry in a 
small country, we may cite the case of Belgium, with a population of 
5,600,000. In 1846 the area under cultivation lor beet-root was only 
5,421 acres ; in 1866 this was increased to 44,480 acres, and in 1882 to 
86,490 acres. 

The quantities of raw beet-sugar manufactured in Belgium were in 
1880-81,68,000; in 1881-82, 73,000; and 1883, probably 80,000 tons 
were manufactured in 156 works; that is, about one ton of sugar is 
obtained for one acre of beet-root crop. In France and Germany the 
area of beet crop and the consequent production of sugar is very 
much larger. The process of extraction and purification of sugar 
from beet are complicated and delicate, requiring both scientific 
knowledge and capital, as the plant necessary for working up the 
juice into refined sugar is of a very costly character, and the opera- 
tions require careful and scientific handling in order to ensure suc- 
cess. The juice contains not only sugar crystallizable and uncrystal- 
lizable, but also a considerable quantity of inorganic salts and organic 
subtances other than sugar, and the presence of these latter ingre- 
dients prevent? a large portion of the sugar from crystallizing, and 
therefore require f to be removed. This removal of the injurious 
constituents can only be effected when an exact analysis of the juice 
and of the sugar has been made, and this must be done at each stage 
of the operation, so that the mode of working shall be properly regu- 
lated, and such an investigation is a somewhat complicated process, 
needing skilled chemical knowledge. The quantity of sugar which is 
rendered uncrystallizable by the presence of inorganic salts or ash is 
about five times the weight of the ash. 

In order to obtain the sugar which would otherwise be thus lost, 
many processes have been adopted, and of these that involving the 
use of strontia is the most recent. This method was secretly worked 
for some years in certain works in Germany, but it has now been 
generally adopted under the patent of Dr. Scheibler, chemist to the 



Industrial Education Commission. 489 

Beetroot Sugar Institution. By the use of the strontia process large 
profits have been made, and the plan has been successfully introduced 
into France and Belgium. The Continental beet-root manufacture, 
partly of course in consequence of the Government bounties, has 
been a very profitable one ; annual dividends as high as 100 per cent, 
having been paid by some sugar-mills. It would seem, however, that 
owing to the great increase in the number of these establishments, 
the trade has seen its best days. 



(i) Calico Printing— Alsaje. 

It is a noteworthy fact that, in nearly every instance, the employers 
and foremen of the establishments we visited, were men of high at- 
tainments. A great proportion of them speak English, and, from 
frequent intercourse with English machine makers and printers they 
are able to obtain accurate information on all matters relating to the 
development of their industry. 

In every establishment there were trained chemists, some of whom 
were workmen who had gone through courses at the School of Chem- 
istry in the town, or were at present attending classes during the 
evening. The employers themselves, who are practically interested 
in the school, take the greatest pains to promote its efficiency, con- 
stantly off*ering suggestions as to how the chemical instruction may be 
made systematic and practical, so as to be really useful to the indus- 
tries of the district. They even open their works to the students of 
the school, who come at stated times in company with their profes- 
sors, and are shown the manufacturing processes. 

The interest of the large employers is not, however, by any means 
confined to the technical and scientific acquirements of their em- 
ployes, and to the means by which such knowledge may be obtained. 
The opportunities afforded for instruction in art have long been of an 
extended and praiseworthy character; but not content with agencies 
in advance of any that may be found in any English town of the 
same population (64,000), the public-spirited inhabitants of Mulhouse 
are building, not, as is so usual on the Continent, out of State and 
municipal funds, but by private subscription, a new art gallery and 
museum for the study of Fine Art and Design, at a cost we were told 
of nearly £20,000 ($100,000). 

Moreover, employers vie with each other in their contributions to 
the unrivalled Trade Museum of the town, of designs, patterns and 
choice examples of weaving and printing. The museum is open to 
the public, as well as all connected with the calico printing industry, 
and the benefactions to the Industrial Society are among the most 
remarkable illustrations of public spirit that we have witnessed. 



490 Report of the 

Whenever the question was asked, the Commissioners found that the 
young men engaged in the various works attended the Drawing 
Schools of the town, and it is but reasonable to suppose that, as they 
are in constant contact with varied and beautiful designs, and are 
daily engaged in manipulating them in the different stages of their 
employment, they will bring to their Art instruction a quick percep- 
tion of its useful applications, and will display in their industrial oc- 
cupation a genuine and cultivated sense of beauty. 

We found among the engravers employed in the various works, 
notable instances of young men who had received their entire instruc- 
tion in the Engraving School, which is under the patronage and sup- 
port of the Industrial Society. In fact every inducement is given to 
the poorest and humblest of the boys in the elementary schools, who 
show talent or proficiency in drawing, to attend first the Drawing 
School, and afterwards the Engraving School, where, without any cost 
to their parents, they are trained in all the processes of engraving for 
the calico printer, and are afterwards at liberty to sell their highly 
skilled labor at the best advantage, either in their own town or else- 
where. 



(j) Textile Manufactures. Chemnitz, Saxony. 

In conversation with employers and foremen, the importance of the 
weaving school of Chemnitz was everywhere acknowledged. One of 
the employers stated that its influence upon the manufacturing indus- 
tries of Saxony could not be too highly estimated. We were told that 
there was not a fancy manufacturer in the town whose son, assistant 
or overseer had not attended some of the classes. 

We paid an interesting visit to the warehouse and show rooms of 
one of the largest manufacturers in Saxony. The head of the firm, 
who takes the practical management of the business, had studied 
designing and weaving in the weaving schools at Lyons, and conspic- 
uous in his office are some remarkable examples of silk weaving, in 
which the designing, setting of the cards in the loom, and the weaving 
of the fabric, were done by his own hands. He also studied chemistry 
at a Polytechnic School, and in his youth visited and worked at some 
of the chief dye works and factories in England. 
* * % *.* * * '^ ** * * * 

It was alleged, as one reason why these goods are sold so exten- 
sively in England, that similar goods are not made in England. 

Their manufacture necessitates superior skill in designing and 
weaving, and a varied and technical knowledge of dyeing; these re- 
quirements, through the influence of technical schools, have been 



Industrial Education Commission. 491 

carefully attended to and mastered in Chemnitz, but have not re- 
ceived the same attention in competing towns in England. He 
feared that England was awakening, and, if so, it would be so much 
the worse for him. 

The designing in this establishment is executed by three head de- 
signers, who originate, and from six to eight assistants, who enlarge 
the designs on paper prepared for the purpose, and arrange them for 
the cards, which are then passed forward to the loom. 

We saw two head designers at work, men apparently under twenty- 
five, and found, on inquiry, that both had been trained at the Indus- 
trial Art School at Dresden. In reply to a question as to the influ- 
ence of Paris on the trade designs, we were informed that it did not 
suit the purpose of this firm either to send to Paris for designs or em- 
ploy designers who had exhausted their originality at other places. 
* * * * * What they wanted and sought after was 
originality, combined with good taste, and these qualities could best 
be found in talented young men, full of inspiration and ambition, 
fresh from the best schools and teachers. These young men from 
Dresden were doing excellent work, and as they had a style of their 
own, or at least a style that was not an imitation of Parisian methods, 
the firm was able to ofi'er novelties which attracted customers, and the 
business prospered in consequence. We ascertained that the knowl- 
edge of these designers did not go beyond the power of drawing and 
painting the designs themselves; the technical part of the work had 
to be done by the six or eight assistants who had attended the Chem- 
nitz Weaving School. In this instance the Industrial Art School at 
Dresden had supplied the artist ; the Chemnitz Weaving School the 
more technical designer, who applied the work of the artist to the 
actual capabilities of the loom. Neither could do the work of the 
other. Our conductor was of opinion that, as far as possible, the same 
training should be gone through by both. The artist should be taught 
to transfer his picture to the loom, and the technical designer to pro- 
duce a design for himself. It ought to be the main purpose of the 
weaving school, in carrying out its highest functions, to bring the 
artist to the loom and the weaver to the studio. 

The Chemnitz Weaving School is to be credited with much of the 
variety and excellence of the textile manufactures of the district, and 
with the greater power of adaptation from one class of goods to an- 
other, than is found in similar manufacturing towns in England, 
where no such schools exist. 



492 Report of the 



(k) Engineering and Machine "Works. 

In Berlin we visited the engineering works of Messrs. Borsig, where 
1,400 men are employed, and were shown, with the greatest liberality, 
over every part of the workshops. 

Fourteen draughtsmen are employed in the works, all of whom 
have had a scientific education, and most some experience in the 
workshop besides. 

On inquiring as to the education and training of the head draughts- 
man, he informed us that, after a fair scholastic education, and a 
year's experience of practical work in an engineering shop, he en- 
tered the Polytechnic at Zurich, and went through the Engineering 
Course. Thence he traveled to England and took a situation as engi- 
neer and draughtsman at a large engine works in Manchester. He 
remained here two or three years, acquiring all the information he 
could obtain relating to the science and practice of engineering, and 
then came to Berlin, where he readily received an engagement at 
these important works. This gentleman was of opinion that the plan 
which he had followed had been of advantage to him. He did not 
believe that a young engineer could obtain the necessary education 
entirely in school. The Polytechnic School course, although very 
thorough in its waj^ would be most useful to a student acquainted 
with practical work. He would recommend a good general educa- 
tion, to be followed by a year in a workshop, and afterwards by a 
Polytechnic School training. 



(1) Works of Messrs. Siemens and Halske (Electrical Engineers), Berlin. 

At these works from 800 to 900 men are employed, and the firm 
have other works employing 1,600 men, thus making a total of 2,400. 

We were conducted over the works by Dr. Werner Siemens, brother 
and partner of the late Sir William Siemens. 

He was of the opinion that in Germany there are more Polytechnic 
Schools than are necessary. Their number was due to the educational 
rivalry of the several German States, each of which had aimed at 
achieving technical superiority over the rest. The motive was ex- 
cellent, but the result had been costly; yet, considering that the 
standard of education throughout Germany had thereby been raised, 
the people felt that their sacrifices had been more than justified. The 
number of Polytechnic Schools might wisely be reduced, and the 
money thus saved might be devoted to the establishment of inter- 
mediate schools, which are much needed. 

As to the education ol workmen, everything depended upon the 



Industrial Education Commission. 493 

means and natural abilities of the student. He would give, first, a 
sound elementary education up to 14. At that age it was natural 
that the workman's son should be required to earn wages and learn a 
trade, but he ought to attend a night school. After two or three years 
he should enter, if he could dispense with wages, a foremen's school 
(like that at Chemnitz), from which, by showing remarkable ability, 
he would be able to pass to the highest technical schools. If a young 
man were compelled to work for wages in order to maintain himself, 
the above course would be impossible. The night school, however, 
was still open to him, and the highest possibilities were accessible to 
perseverance and ability. 

In his own works he selected young men of promise, and paid their 
expenses at these schools, in some cases dividing the year between 
school and work, so as to enable the students to keep up the connec- 
tion between the school and shop. The great problem with him had 
been to find and train the most promising youths. Although it too 
often happened that he lost the services of the men after they had 
been improved, yet in the main the advantages compensated him for 
the sacrifices. Dr. Siemens said that workmen in other trades very 
commonly save up their money in order to have a course of school- 
ing, and attend classes in the slack times of winter. Many em- 
ployers assist their young men in this endeavor to improve them- 
selves, and consider that the gain in increased efficiency is worth the 
outlay. Dr. Siemens considers it well worth the while of the State 
to seek out talent wherever it can be found, and to develop it for the 
benefit of the State as well as of the individual. The foundation of 
bursaries for this purpose, uniting the shops and the schools, would 
be very useful, for it often happens that a young man's talent is only 
brought out by the practical application of scientific principles at the 
bench or forge. 



(m) Works of Messrs. Hartman & Co. , Limited, Chemnitz. 

On a previous visit to this establishment 10 years ago, by one of the 
Commissioners, he was informed that for many years previous it had 
been a condition of the firm that apprentices should attend the classes 
of the Technical school. It appeared that the custom was not con- 
fined to one establishment, as there were also students in the school 
from other large machine shops of Chemnitz. 

In Chemnitz, as in other industrial centers, we came in contact with 
the leading employers and engineers, who freely gave their opinions 
upon questions relating to the education and training of men of their 
class. There were differences of opinion in matters of detail ; some 



494 Report of the 

gentlemen of high authority and large experience were in favor of 
teaching the use of tools in elementary schools, continuing this work- 
shop practice in more highly equipped Technical schools, and thus 
preparing the engineer, by the union of theoretical knowledge with 
its application at the bench, for actual practice without apprentice- 
ship. Others were opposed to the introduction of machinery into 
schools, beyond such models as would be useful for the illustration or 
demonstration of scientific principles, and preferred leaving the actual 
teaching of the trade entirely to the workshop. But the advocates of 
both systems were agreed as to the great importance to all young 
men qualifying as engineers, of attending night schools, or by other 
means acquiring a knowledge of mathematics, applied mechanics, 
and mechanical drawing, at the same time that they gained workshop 
experience. 

The German school-taught engineer was strong in the knowledge of 
the principles of mechanics and physics and in mechanical drawing. 
He was, however, deficient in workshop practice, and in the knowl- 
edge of men ; qualities which could only be acquired by experience. 
And since nine out of every ten engine and machine shops were en- 
gaged upon stereotyped machines made according to pattern, it was 
more important to have an overseer who knew thoroughly how the 
work in hand should be done, and how to manage the artisans under 
him, and who could thus secuie the end that all were striving for, viz: 
a cheap and efi'ective machine, rather than to have an overseer who 
understood principles, which he had no opportunity of carrying into 
practice, but was inferior in practice and in the power of getting 
cheap and efi'ective work out of his men. Mr. B. was of opinion that 
the English system erred in the direction of too little theory ; the 
German system in that of too little practice. Of course, he would 
admit that a man could not have too much practical or theoretical 
knowledge, if it were possible to combine them, but so long as a man's 
training was limited by its cost in time and money, he was strongly 
of opinion that it was not advisable to run the risk of sacrificing 
practice to theory. The new Schools of Engineering in Germany, and 
particularly the Higher School at Chemnitz, were modifying their 
courses so as to secure adequate theoretical training, with as little 
sacrifice as possible of that equally important experience which could 
only be obtained in the workshop. 



Industrial Education Commission. 495 

fl) The Iron Industries of "Westptialia. 

Great importance is attached to the attendance at evening schools 
of all boys employed in the works. It would be considered in Eng- 
land that a boy who had gone through the strain of 12 hours piece 
work among the furnaces of an iron works would be entitled to all 
the relaxation he could get in the evening. It is not so at Dortmund. 
The directors of these works require all boys under 18 to attend the 
Fortbildung schools of the town on two or three evenings a week, and 
the boys are required to attend the Sunday schools. (As we have 
already explained, the reader must understand that the Sunday schools 
of the Continent, so frequently referred to in this report, are not 
schools for religious teaching, or connected with religious organiza- 
tions in the same way as those of England. They are invariably pub- 
lic, municipal, trade-guild or State schools, intended for supplement- 
ing the education of the day school. Many are advanced schools, 
strictly technical in their aims, giving instruction in science and draw- 
ing bearing upon the local industries.) At these works a register is 
kept of the attendance of the boys at evening schools, and is daily 
examined by an overseer in charge. Parents willingly cooperate with 
employers in securing the attendance of apprentices at school, and we 
were told that the boys generally appreciate the school and make 
substantial progress. 

The expenses of the Fortbildung schools are defrayed by the town. 
They are held in the municipal day school's building, and day school 
teachers conduct the classes. Besides a school for mining deputies at 
Dortmund, a " Werkmeister" school has been quite recently formed 
at Bochum for the special education of foremen of ironworks. It is sup- 
ported entirely by the iron manufacturers, who contribute in the ratio 
of the number of men they employ. No man is admitted unless he 
has been four years at work in some branch of the iron industry, and 
has shown superior capacity and conduct. The students go through 
a course of practical metallurgy and of the other sciences bearing on 
their trade. 

One of the directors of the works, who takes great interest in the 
school, stated that at present it was exceedingly difficult to find scien- 
tific knowledge and workshop skill and experience united in persons 
of the class of foremen. Trained simply in the works, they neces- 
sarily knew but little of the sciences of metallurgy and chemistry. 
The polytechnic students who had mastered the sciences were often 
useless in the works. It was the intention of the school to engraft 
some knowledge of principles on the practical skill of the workmen. 

The director expressed a strong opinion that the works training in 
Germany is less thorough than that of England. If any country 
could claim natural aptitude for a particular industry, England might 
fairly claim preeminence in iron. Germany cannot look back upon 



496 Report of the 

generations of skilled and practical men ; the stimulus of high re- 
wards directing talent to mechanical pursuits ; the boundless capital 
at command to develop inventions; and until lately Germany has not 
been able to match the men of talent who, from time to time, have 
arisen in England to revolutionize the trade. A combination of cir 
cumstances has long helped to strengthen England in what had been 
so long, but was now no longer, her great iron monopoly. For many 
years the best that other countries could do was to follow ; and, in 
strengthening their weak places, they were compelled to look to edu- 
cation as their most important aid. Let education, said the director, be 
sound and thorough, so far as it goes. If a boy must leave school at 
14 or 15, in order to earn his livelihood, there is no good in teaching 
him a great variety of subjects. Give him, as far as the time will 
admit of it, the tools which will enable him, as opportunities arise, to 
dig knowledge for himself. A smattering of many things does not 
make a boy clever, but often makes him conceited; it persuades him 
that he is intended for something better than swinging a hammer or 
using a file. If a man must earn his living by his hands, give him 
an education that will help him to do it ; teach him drawing, the 
rudiments of science, modelling; ground him well in arithmetic. 
There is no good in a working boy receiving a " fancy " education at 
somebody else's expense, when that education rather hinders than 
helps him in his work. If, on the other hand, a boy has exceptional 
talent, by all means cultivate it, and do not grudge the cost in public 
money, for the public as well as the boy will reap the advantage of it. 



(m) Eng-ineering and Mechanical Industries in Bavaria 

In making the tour of one of the large engineering establishments 
in Bavaria, we were accompanied by an English manager of great in- 
telligence and experience, who expressed very definite opinions on 
several important matters relating to this inquiry. * * * * 
Germany 30 years ago, as compared with England, was simply 
" nowhere," but, placing English and German works side by side 
now, we should find that the progress in the latter has been posi- 
tively marvelous. During all these years the Germans have been fol- 
lowing the English, step by step, importing their machinery and tools, 
engaging, when they could, the best men from the best shops, copy- 
ing their methods of work, and the organization of their industries ; 
but, besides this, they had devoted special attention to a matter which 
England had almost ignored, the scientific or technical instruction of 
their own people. And what has been the result of all this? They have 
reached a point at which they have but little to learn from the 



Industrial Education OommissioNo 497 

English. He called onr attention to a fact, which had not escaped 
our observation before, that, now-a-days, there are scarcely any 
Englishmen to be found at the head of German workshops. It no 
longer pays to import them. In earlier days the Englishman was 
completely master of the situation. Practical knowledge counted for 
everything, and this was the Englishman's possession. In theory he 
was deficient. During recent years, there has been less and less 
demand for En2;lish foremen on the Continent, where practical knowl- 
edge has increased, and more and more demand for Continental men 
of science in England. 

" Give the English workmen the same schooling as the German," 
remarked Mr. A, " which will improve him both as a mechanic and 
as a man ; keep him from soldiering, and teach him to avoid drink, 
and no workman in the world will have a chance against him." 

The German system of education, in which the sciences underlying 
mechanical industries are taught, combined with the English system 
ol workshop practice, form his ideal of the training for an engineer, 
mechanic or builder. England must not be content to rest on her 
undoubted superiority in workshop appliances and organization; she 
must master the theoretical as well as the practical. " Keep to your 
shops," said Mr. A., over and over again, *' and follow the Germans in 
scientific teaching; English industries will then take a new lease." 



(n) The Royal Fachsclaule of Iserlohn, Prussia. 

The object of this Institution, as an Academy of Arts, is to impart 
a thoroughly sound education, at once scientific, technical and 
manual. The subjects comprehend the manufacture of iron, copper, 
brass, bronze, nickel and silver. 

To aid the students in acquiring a comprehensive, well-grounded, 
practical knowledge of the diverse processes and successive stages of 
manufacture in those metals, they have the advantage of spacious 
drawing halls, auditoriums, workshops replete with all necessary ap- 
paratus, instruments, tools, machiner}^, etc., and a steam engine of 
six-horse power, all within the walls of the institution. 

The establishment is conducted under proper supervision in every 
department, and all suitable measures are adopted to maintain the 
students in vigorous health, both of body and mind. From time to time 
excursions are made to visit the picturesque scenery of the neighbor- 
hood, as well as into Rhenish Prussia, and visits are paid to the large 
industrial establishments in the district. 

The terms for the science instruction begin after the Easter vaca- 
32 Ed. Com. 



498 



Keport of the 



tion, but instruction in manual work can be commenced at any time. 
No student is bound to attend all the branches of instruction specified 
in the prospectus. 

The school fee is £1 ($5) per quarter. 

Prospectus. 
A. ScientifiG Education. 



First Year. 

1. Model Drawing. 

2. Ornamental Drawing. 

3. Geometry. 

4. Geometry Applied to Design. 

5. The German Language. 

6. General Arithmetic and Book-keeping. 

7. Algebra. 

8. Natural Philosophy. 

Second Year. 

1. Ornamental Drawing. 

2. Anatomical Drawing (the human fig- 

ure). 

3. The Science of Shadows. 

4. The Science of Perspective. 



5. The German Language. 

6. The Science ol Projection. 

7. Mechanical Calculations. 

8. Natural Philosophy. 

9. Technical Chemistry. 
10. Mechanics. 

Third Year. 

1. Composition and Designing. 

2. Drawing from the Antique. 

3. The History of the Arts. 

4. The German Language. 

5. Natural Philosoph5^ 

6. Technology. 

7. Technical Chemistry (laboratory). 

8. Statistics. 



B^ Manual Education Division. 



First Year. 

1. Modeling in Fine Clay. 

2. Carving Wood. 

3. Molding and Carving in Gypsum. 

4. Molding in Sand. 

5. Chipping and Filing. 

Second Year. 

1. Modeling in Wax. 

2. Carving in Wood. 

3. Carving in Gypsum. 

4. Molding in Sand and Wax. 

5. Casting in Bronze. 

6. Shaping. 

7. Planing. 

8. Drilling. 

9. Turning in Wood. 



10. Turning in Metal. 

11. Chasing in the Lathe. 

12. Pressing, Stamping and Coining. 

Third Year. 

1. Forging. 

2. Soldering. 

3. Burnishing. 

4. Embossing. 

5. Chasing. 

6. Engraving. 

7. Etching. 

8. Scouring. 

9. Varnishing. 

10. Galvanizing. 

11. Nickel Plating. 

12. Fire Gilding. 

Theodore Reuter, Director. 



Industrial Education Commission. 499 



III. GREAT BRITAIN. 

Great Britain is far behind Germany, France or the United States 
in establishments for both higher and lower technical training, and 
has barely begun in isolated instances anything like manual training 
in the public schools. There is not in the United Kingdom a techni- 
cal institution of the grade of the Massachussetts Institute of Tech- 
nology, not a manual training school, as far as the commission has 
been able to ascertain, of the grade of the Philadelphia, the St. Louis, 
or the Chicago Manual Training School. 

The subject is, however, awakening very great interest among pub- 
lic men and educators, and there is every indication that that country 
will not long be content to occupy its present position of interiority. 
A powerful impulse in this direction was given by the publication of 
the successive reports of the Royal Commissioners on Technical In- 
struction, from 1882 to 1884, which embodied theresults of an extended 
and painstaking inquiry into the extent, the methods and the results, 
both educational and practical, of such instruction, in those countries 
of Europe where it had received the greatest development. Evidence 
of this increasing interest, in addition to the fact of the appointment 
of the Commission named, may be found on pages 6 and 7 of the 
present report. 

A most important preparation for the new departure has been made 
in the operations of the Science and Art Department, which the Gov- 
ernment has maintained for more than thirty-five years past, at a 
large expense, but, by general confession, without commensurate re- 
sults. The amount appropriated to this Department in 1887-8, was 
£438,558. 

(a.) Popular Science Teaching. 

This Department began operations in 1837, as a '' normal school of 
design with a museum and lectures," with an annual appropriation of 
£1,600. By 1851, seventeen branch schools of design had been es- 
tablished in various manufacturing centers, and the appropriation for 
their support had increased to £15,055. The Science Department was 
added in 1853, with Dr. [now Sir] Lyon Playfair as executive head of 
the joint Department, and the general scheme adopted was, to estab- 
lish in the metropolis, a school of the highest character and to give 
partial aid to local institutions for Science instruction, such institu- 
tions being made as largely self-supporting as possible. But no gen- 
eral system of making grants applicable to the whole country was 
formulated until 1859. Kules were then adopted under which any 
place might establish Science classes and obtain State aid. 



500 Report of the 

The subjects, toward instruction in which aid was obtainable, were 
at first only the following : 

1. Practical, plane and solid geometry, with mechanical and machine drawing. 

2. Mechanical Physics. 

3. Experimental Physics. 

4. Chemistry. 

5. Geology and mineralogy. 

6. Natural history, including Zoology and Botany. 

The aid consisted of certificate allowances, earned by passing a 
certain number of pupils ; additional payments for pupils who ob- 
tained prizes; grants toward the purchase of apparatus, books, etc.; 
and prizes and medals to the students. As the certificate allowance 
was treated as a maximum sum obtainable, portions only of which 
were payable on the success of each pupil, this form of aid is gener- 
ally known as " payment on results." 

New schools and classes were rapidly formed, so that in May, of 
1861, there were thirty-eight classes with 1,330 pupils under certifi- 
cated teachers. The number of schools (each institution where Science 
instruction was given being counted as a school) had increased in 
1886, to 1,682, with 5,862 classes in difi'erent subjects, and 94,838 stu- 
dents under instruction. In order to obtain State aid, each school or 
class must be under a properly constituted and approved local com- 
mittee of at least five known and responsible persons. The subjects, 
towards instruction in which aid is granted, are as follows : 

1. Practical plane and solid geometry. 

2. Machine construction and drawing. 

3. Building construction. 

4. Nayal architecture. 

5. Mathematics. 

6. Theoretical mechanics. 

7. Applied mechanics. 

8. Sound, light and heat. 

9. Magnetism and electricity. 

10. Inorganic chemistry [theoretical]. 
lOp. Inorganic chemistry [practical]. 

11. Organic chemistry [theoretical], 
lip. Inorganic chemistry [practical]. 

12. Geology. 

13. Mineralogy. 

14. Animal i)hysiology. 

15. Botany. 

16. Biology, including animal and vegetable morphology and 

17. Physiology. 

18. Principles of mining. 

19. Metallurgy [theoretical]. 
19p. Metallurgy [practical]. 

20. Navigation. 

21. Nautical astronomy. 

22. Steam. 

23. Physiography. 

24. Principles of agriculture, 

25. Hygiene. 



Industrial Education Coinoiission 501 

Each subject is subdivided into three stages or courses — the ele- 
mentary, the advanced and honors — except mathematics, which is 
subdivided into seven stages, with '' honors '* in three groups or stages. 

The assistance granted by the Science and Art Department is in the 
form of — 

1. Examinations, in which Queen's prizes and medals are awarded, 

held annually about May, at all places complying with certain 
conditions. 

2. Payments on the results of examination and, to a limited extent, 

on attendance. 

3. Scholarships and exhibitions. 

4. Building grants, and grants towards the purchase of apparatus, etc. 

5. Supplementary grants in certain subjects. 

6. Aid to teachers in training while attending the Normal School of 

Science and Royal School of Mines, South Kensington. 

Payments are made on the results of the May examinations on 
account of the instruction of students of the industrial classes — all 
those whose incomes do not exceed £200 a year being included in this 
category — or of their children. The payments are : — £2 for a first 
class, and £1 for a second class, in the elementary and in the ad- 
vanced stage, and £2 and £4 for a second or first class, respectively, 
in honors. Further payments are made for attendance in organized 
science schools ; and for practical chemistry and practical metallurgy. 
Before payments on results can be claimed, at least 28 lessons must 
have been given to the class, and each student on whose account pay- 
ment is claimed must have received at least 20 lessons. 

The Science and Art' ScJiolar ships are awarded in competition 
among the pupils of any elementary school or schools ; the absolute 
terms of the competition and the award of the scholarship being left 
to the managers of the school, subject to the approval of the Depart- 
ment of Science and Art. The object of the scholarship is to provide 
a maintenance allowance for the successful competitor while pur- 
suing his studies, for one, two or three years, at a day school approved 
by the Department. This day school may be either the school in con- 
nection with which the scholarship is awarded, or a school where in- 
struction of a more advanced character is given. The committee of 
the local fund contribute £5 each year. For the first year the local 
contribution is supplemented by the Department with a grant of £4 ; 
for the second year with a grant of £7, and for the third year with a 
grant of £10. But it rests with the locality to decide whether the 
scholarship shall be tenable for one, two or three years. With any 
number of pupils up to 100 on the register of the school, or group of 
schools, there can be but two such scholarships ; above 100 and up to 
150, three; above 150 and up to 200, four scholarships, and so on. 

The scholar must be a student of the industrial class, as defined in 
the Directory, and at the time of first appointment must be under 16 



502 Report op the 

years oi age. He must continue regularly to attend a day school, and, 
at the close of the first year, pass in one or more subjects of science, 
or of second grade art ; at the end of the second year, obtain a higher 
class in the subject of science in which he has already passed, or pass 
in some other subject of science, or in another subject of art, second 
or third grade, and at the end of the third year pass in the advanced 
stage of a subject of science in which he has not already passed in 
that stage, or in another subject of art, second or third grade. 

The Local Exhibition is to enable the holder to complete his educa- 
tion at some college or school where a thorough course of science or 
of art instruction of an advanced character may be obtained. Grants 
of £25 per annum, for one, two or three years are made for this pur- 
pose when the locality raises a like sum by voluntary subscriptions. 
And if the student attend a State school, such as the Normal School 
of Science and Koyal School of Mines in London, the National Art 
Training School, the Royal College of Science, or the School of Art, 
in Dublin, the fees are remitted. The exhibition must be awarded in 
competition at the examinations of the Department. 

National Scholarships are given, tenable at either the Normal School 
of Science and Royal School of Mines, London, or at the Royal College 
of Science, Dublin, at the option of the scholar. They entitle the 
holders to free instruction for three years, and to a maintenance al- 
lowance of 305. a week during the session of about 40 weeks each 
year. The scholarships are only open to students of the industrial 
class. Twelve are awarded each year. 

Building grants are made in aid of a new building (or for the adap- 
tation of an existing building) for a school of Science at a rate not ex- 
ceeding 2s. Qd. per square foot of internal area, up to a maximum of 
£500 for any one school, provided that certain conditions are complied 
with, and that the school be built under the Public Libraries and 
Museums Act, or be built in connection with a School of Art, aided 
by a Department building grant. 

Additional aid is provided Irom the income of scholarships founded 
by the late Sir Joseph Whitworth in 1868. According to the latest 
regulations, each candidate for a scholarship is required to have 
worked at least two years in a mechanical workshop or drawing office, 
and no scholar is permitted to occupy any office of profit while hold- 
ing his scholarship. There are 30 such scholarships, each tenable for 
one year, some being of the value of £100 and the rest of £50 each; 
and twelve scholarships, tenable for three years, of the value of £125 
a year each, four to be awarded each year. The competition is in 
theoretical subjects and the limit of age on appointment is 22 years. 

From the first establishment of this system special attention has 
been given to the subject of supplying a sufficient number of properly 
trained teachers. In 1859, the demand for such teachers did not exist 
and had to be created. There were but few places in which a man 



Industrial Education Co3imission. 603 

could earn his living by science teaching alone. Teachers were re- 
quired to have a certificate of competency from the department, and 
it was necessary to induce men connected with the locality, who had 
other occupations and means of subsistence, to undertake Science 
teaching in their leisure time. 

For some years it was found convenient to provide the necessary 
training for teachers in the Royal School of Mines, and out of this ex- 
perience grew the organization, in 1881, of •' The Normal School of 
Science and Royal School of Mines," which is now an institution to 
supply systematic instruction in the various branches of Physical 
Science to students of all classes. While the school is primarily in- 
tended for the instruction of teachers, and of students of the indus- 
trial classes selected by competition in the examinations of the 
Science and Art Department, other students are admitted so far as 
there may be accommodation for them, on the payment of fees fixed 
at a scale sufiiciently high to prevent undue competition with institu- 
tions which do not receive State aid. 

The subjects taught in the school are mechanics and mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, biology, including zoology and botany, geology 
and mineralogy, agriculture, metallurgy and assaying, mining, ele- 
ments of astronomical physics, practical geometry, mechanical and 
freehand drawing. The course of instruction is arranged in such a 
manner, as to give the students a thorough training in the general 
principles of Science, followed by advanced instruction in one or more 
special branches of Science. 



(b.) Art Teaching. 



We have already noted the fact that the Department was established 
for the purpose of " extending a knowledge of the arts and of the 
principles of design among the people (especially the manufacturing 
population) of the country." In 1852, the schools of design were re- 
organized and the " Department of Practical Art " added. The princi- 
pal objects of the new Department were to be — (1.) The promotion 
of elementary instruction in drawing and modeling; (2.) Special in- 
struction in the knowledge and practice of ornamental art; (3.) The 
practical application of such knowledge to the improvement of manu- 
factures. 

Provision was also made to encourage the establishment of a new 
class of Schools of Art. These were to be maintained by local effort 
with conditional aid from the Department, which was granted wherever 
a local committee was willing to establish day and evening classes 
for artisans, to appoint a certificated master, to assign to him part of 
the fees of the school, and to engage him to teach drawing in at least 



504 Report of the 

three elementary day schools. The aid from the Department consisted 
in payments of £10 on each certificate held by the master, in grants 
towards the cost of examples, and in medals and prizes awarded on a 
selection of the works sent to London for examination. 

In 1854, inducements were offered to teachers of elementary schools 
to qualify in Drawing, by the offer of payments on the results of their in- 
struction of the pupil- teachers in their schools; and the pupil- teacher 
system was extended to Schools of Art, a payment of £15 a year 
being allowed for each pupil teacher. In 1855, the Department offered 
prizes to children in elementary schools taught drawing by masters 
of Schools of Art. In 1856, these schools were collectively examined 
at Schools of Art, by the Inspectors of theDepartment, and in 1857, 
a payment of 3^. for every child who obtained a prize was given 
to the art master who had taught him. In the same year an augmen- 
tation grant of £5 was made to the salaries of teachers of elemen- 
tary schools who had passed examinations in drawing, and taught the 
subject satisfactorily in their schools. 

Since 1864, Schools of Art and Art classes send their works annually, 
in April, to South Kensington, where they are examined by Com- 
mittees of Examiners who award the marks on which payments are 
made and medals and prizes given. 

Aid is given to — 
(a.) Elementary schools. 
(h.) Training colleges. 
(c.) Schools of Art and Art classes. 

(a.) The aid may be obtained by public elementary schools under 
the inspection of the Education Department, and by other schools if 
they come within the definition of elementary schools in section 3 of 
the elementary education Act of 1870. 

The aid is given on the following conditions : 

1. The instruction in drawing must be given by a duly qualified 
teacher of the school, or by the teacher of an Art School or Art class. 

2. Drawing must be regularly and continuously taught throughout 
the school for at least one and a half hours each week, throughout 
the year; except that girls need not be taught drawing, and no grant 
is made on account of the instruction of girls in drawing, unless they 
are also taught English, needlework and cookery. 

3. The school is examined in drawing, once in a year, by a local 
Inspector appointed by the Department of Science and Art. 

4. The scholars may be classified for instruction and examination 
in drawing in standards not corresponding to the ordinary standards 
of the school ; but every scholar must, as a rule, be examined in a 
higher standard in each successive year. 

5. The seven standards of examination in drawing * are: — I. Draw- 

* An illustrated syllabus of the course of instruction in drawing may be obtained from the 
Department of Science and Art, price 2d. 



Industrial Education Commission. 505 

ing on slates^ freehand, and with the ruler, of lines, angles, parallels 
and the simplest right-lined forms. II. The same on paper. III. {a ) 
Freehand drawing of regular forms and curved figures from the flat; 
(J.) Simple geometrical figures with rulers. lY. (^a.) Freehand 
drawing from the flat; (5.) Drawing from simple rectangular and 
circular models ; (<?.) Simple scales and drawing to scale. Y. {a,) 
Freehand drawing from the flat; {h.) Drawing from easy common 
objects; (c.) Geometrical figures with instruments and to scale. 
YI. {a.) Freehand drawing from the flat; (J.) Drawing from models 
of regular forms and from easy common objects; (c.) Plans and ele- 
vations of plane figures and rectangular solids in simple positions, 
with sections (not required in girls' schools). YII. {a.) Freehand 
drawing from the flat; (5.) Drawing any common object and casts of 
ornament in light and shade, or (Jb' .) Geometrical drawing more ad- 
vanced than in Y ; (c.) Plans and elevations of rectangular and cir- 
cular solids with sections (not required in girls' schools). 

6. Registers must be kept of the attendances of the scholars ; and 
all scholars whose names have been 22 weeks on the register, at the 
end of the school year must be presented for examination. 

7. A grant of I5., Is. Qd., or 2^. per scholar in average attendance 
is paid on the results of the examination, if the award be " fair," 
" good," or " excellent " respectively ; and cards of merit are given 
to scholars who pass with credit in standards YI and YII. A grant 
of 10s. is made for each second grade examination paper satisfactorily 
worked by a pupil, teacher or ex-standard scholar of the school. 

8. The minute also provides for grants by the Department of Science 
and Art for the drawing in evening schools under the inspection of 
the Education Department. 

(h.) Annual examinations are lield about October, at the Training 
Colleges under the inspection of the Education Department. 

The subjects of examination are — freehand drawing from flat ex- 
amples; practical geometry; linear perspective ; model drawing and 
drawing on the blackboard. 

A payment of 10s. is made to the Training College for each subject 
of the examination in which a student passes, and prizes and certifi- 
cates are given to all candidates whose papers are marked " excellent." 

Grants are also made towards the purchase of suitable apparatus. 

(c.) There are twenty-three stages of art instruction towards which 
aid is granted to Schools of Art and Art classes, which have been duly 
recognized by the Department. 

This aid to Schools of Art and Art classes is in the form of — 

1. Examinations, in which prizes are awarded, held at all places 
complying with certain conditions ; and medals and prizes are awarded 
on works executed during the year. 

2. Payments on the results of examination, and on the works ex- 
ecuted in the school or class during the year. 



506 Report op the 

3. Scholarships, local exhibitions and free studentships at the Na- 
tional Art Training School and at local schools of art. 

4. Supplementary grants in respect of teachers, art pupil teachers, 
modelers and other students. 

5. Building grants and grants towards the purchase of examples, 
apparatus, etc. 

6. Special grants and loans of works of art, books, etc. 
Payments are made on the results of the examinations of students 

of the industrial classes — all those whose incomes do not exceed £200 
a year being included in this category — or of their children. There are 
two kinds of examination- — (a) Second and third grade personal ex- 
aminations, held about May; and (&) the examination of works ex- 
ecuted by registered students in schools and classes, which works are 
sent to the Department of Science and Art for that purpose, in April. 

The payments to Schools of Art and Art classes are as follows : 
(a.) £1 and 10s. respectively for a first class or second class in each 

subject of the second grade examination. 
(h.) £1 and IO5. respectively for a first class or second class at the 
second grade examination in modeling. This payment can 
only be claimed on account of a student who has attended at 
least 40 lessons in modeling during the school year in a School 
of Art or Art class under the instruction of a master holding a 
third grade certificate. 
(c.) £L 10s. for a pass in the third grade examination in stages 35, 6a 

and 5h. 
(d.) £3 and £1 10s. respectively for a first class or second class in 

other subjects of the third grade examination. 
(e.) £2, or a sum not exceeding £2, for works sent up, other than 
those which are preliminary to personal examinations, executed 
during the previous year by a student in the rooms and during 
the recognized meetings of schools or classes. 
Grants are made to enable the masters and students of Schools of 
Art to visit the South Kensington museum and other metropolitan 
institutions, and to go abroad for study. 

Aid not exceeding 50 per cent, of their cost is given towards the 
purchase of examples, apparatus and fittings. 

Building grants not exceeding 2^. 6d. per superficial foot of internal 
area are made, up to a maximum of £500 for any one school, in aid 
of a new building, or of the adaptation of an existing building for a 
School of Art. 

The following figures show the extent and amount of the aid of Art 
instruction under the foregoing heads. 
In 1886 there were — 

205 Schools of Art with 21 branch classes, and a total of 40,134 stu- 
dents — the fees paid by the latter amounting to £40,643, and the 
payments on results to £27,742. 



Industrial Education Commission. 507 

525 art classes, with 31,491 students. The payments on the results 
of Art examinations, in Art classes and Science classes together, 
amounted to £9,486. 

4,446 elementary schools at which 870,491 children and pupil- 
teachers were taught drawing, of whom 588,265 were examined—the 
payments on results amounting to £33,284. 

50 Training Colleges, with 3,620 students in training examined in 
drawing, of whom 935 students and teachers obtained certificates, the 
grants amounting to £2,161, 

The whole number of persons who received instruction in Art in 
some form, through the agency of the department was 956,524. 



508 



Report of the 





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I]n)USTRiAL Education Commission. 509 

It is evident from the foregoing sketch, which is condensed from 
an account contained in the '' Calendar and General Directory of the 
Department of Science and Art for the year 1888," that a vast amount 
of money and effort has been expended, both by the Government and 
by individuals and localities, for the promotion of science and art 
among the people, and with the avowed object of helping England 
by this means to retain and insure her industrial supremacy. The 
results have been by no means unimportant, and if nothing more had 
been done than to secure the establishment of the magnificent mus- 
eum at South Kensington, with its group of related institutions, the 
return would have amply justified the outlay. But whatever advan- 
tages, direct or indirect, may have accrued to the national industries 
from these sources, thoughtful Englishmen are free to admit that they 
have not met the desires or expectations of the general public or of 
those best able to judge. The deep-seated movement now going on 
in that country, in behalf of better Technical and Industrial educa- 
tion^ is in part, at least, an expression of that dissatisfaction ; though 
it has also a positive purpose, looking to the incorporation of a prac- 
tical element with the theoretical already provided for. The feature 
of the present system which is most generally criticised is its funda- 
mental principle of " payment on results." 

This, it is alleged, has resulted in a national system of " cramming " 
for examinations, and of such teaching as "cramming" requires — a 
system which suppresses all spontaneity of intellectual action and 
makes the mind a mere receptacle — a sort of living phonograph. 

This criticism, however much of truth it may contain, does not in 
our opinion touch the vital point of the difficulty. If this extended 
system of Science and Art teaching had been accompanied with any- 
thing like an equal amount of manual training in the use of tools 
and in laboratory manipulations, thus giving concreteness and reality 
to the subjects of instruction, we believe the results would have been 
incalculably more effective, and in the direction in which they were 
sought. In fact, this passage in educational history furnishes a most 
convincing demonstration of what a correct system of Technical and 
Industrial education should be, by showing in what ways a defective 
system has failed. It shows that no amount of theoretical training 
can supply the lack of even a moderate amount of practical hand 
training, provided the latter be skilfully directed, on educational 
methods, and with a view to illustrating the principles involved. We 
may quote, on this point, a brief passage from Professor Silvanus P. 
Thompson, the accomplished Principal of Finsbury Technical College. 

Says Professor T., "But, as it happens, those of our national industries which 
have felt most severely the depression in trade are, for the most part, those in which 
skilled labor tells for a great deal ; the iron and steel industries ; the industries in 
cloth, in weaving, dyeing, and spinning ; the industries in silk, in ribbons, in tools, 
in watches.— We need not further particularize. The lack of Technical Education is 
costing us dearly— has cost us terribly dear— in spite of the oft-repeated warnings 



610 Report of the 

of those who saw the efforts which Continental nations were making to surpass us, 
as they could only hope to surpass a nation possessing vast natural advantages, by 
organizing the Technical Education of their artisans, and by giving to the sons of 
the wealthier commercial classes and employers of labor that sound Scientific train- 
ing which alone could qualify them to use to the highest advantage the Techni- 
cal training given to the artisans. Scientific and Technical education go hand in 
hand. Neither is competent alone to bring about that development of the sliilled 
industries which together thej'- can effect. At the first sight it might be supposed 
that, provided the younger generation of employers of labor possessed a Scientific 
training, the application of their science to the better Technical training of the arti- 
san would follow as a matter of course. Those w'ho argue thus, leave out of sight 
one most important link in the chain of cause and effect, viz : That in consequence 
of slow and almost insensible changes, wrought by social agencies during the last 
three generations, apprenticeship no longer exists except in name. All that was 
best and most valuable in the old system of apprenticeship as we inherited it from 
our forefathers of the middle ages, has vanished, leaving behind it as the inheritor 
of its name and of its legal prestige a system in which only its worst and least ad. 
vantageous features are retained. The life of the apprentice in the bosom of his 
master's family, the pride of the master in his craft, the secrets of trade perpetuated 
only by being handed down within the narrow circle of the craftsmen of the guild 
— all these vanished from the moment when the capitalist replaced the master-crafts- 
man as the employer of apprentice labor, leaving behind little more than the petty 
tyrannies and the subservience to obsolete rules of thumb which degrade so may 
workshops even of the jjresent day." 



The most effective agency that has yet been created to meet this 
want, and one that promises to give London, it administered in con- 
nection with the Science and Art Department, one of the best in the 
world, is the 

*' City and Guilds of London Institute," 

comprising a great central institution at South Kensington (under the 
direction of Sir Philip Magnus) with branches and affiliated institu- 
tions throughout the country, and with an elaborate system of local 
technological examinations. Its aims and work are practical as well 
as theoretical, and it seems likely to bear the same relation to the 
extension of Manual Training, that the Science and Art Department 
does to theoretical teaching. If any friendly criticism is to be made 
upon it, it is that the Central Institution has begun, its work upon a 
plane too far above the level of present public opinion. It would, 
however, be a serious calamity if the work so well begun should, for 
any reason, be allowed to fail of the purposes of its promoters." 

The object of the Central Institution is to give to London a college 
for the higher Technical Education, in which advanced instruction 
shall be provided in those kinds of knowledge which bear upon the 
different branches of industry, whether manufactures or arts. 

The main purpose of the instruction given in this institution is to 
point out the application of different branches of Science to various 
manufacturing industries. 

In order that this instruction may be efficiently carried out, the In- 
stitution, in addition to the lecture- theatres and class-rooms, is fitted 



Industrial Education Commission. 511 

with laboratories, drawing offices and workshops ; and opportunities 
are afforded for the prosecution of original research with the object 
of the more thorough training of the students, and for the elucidation 
of the theory of industrial processes. 

The courses of instruction are arranged to suit the requirements of — 

1. Persons who are training to become technical teachers. 

2. Persons who are preparing to enter engineering or architects' 
offices, or manufacturing works. 

3. Persons who desire to acquaint themselves with the scientific 
principles underlying the particular branch of industry in which they 
are engaged. 

Students intending to go through a complete course of Technical 
instruction, with the view of subsequently obtaining a Diploma in the 
engineering, physical or chemical department, are required to pass 
an entrance or matriculation examination, which includes elementary, 
pure and applied mathematics, mechanical drawing, physics, chemis- 
try and French or German. 

The complete course of instruction involves instruction in all four 
departments, and is practically the same, during the first year, for all 
students. It is specialized in the second year, according the particu- 
lar branch of industrial work in which the student expects to be en- 
gaged ; and, in the third year, the student devotes himself almost 
exclusively to the work of the department in which he enters. 

The fees for the complete course of instruction to be pursued by a 
matriculated student are £25 per annum, payable in advance, or £26 
payable in three instalments of £12, £8 and £6 at the commence- 
ment of each term. 

In the case of students who have already gained a considerable 
knowledge of any particular subject, the course of instruction for the 
Diploma may be modified at the discretion of the Board of Studies. 

Any person may attend parts of the regular courses if he satisfies 
the professors that he possesses sufficient knowledge to follow the 
instruction. 

The following courses of lectures, forming part of the complete courses for 
matriculated students, are given during the session, and are open, on payment of 
the fees indicated, to all persons who may be qualified to attend them : 

Mechanics and mathematics. 

Mechanism and the application of dynamics to practical problems, the strength of 
materials, etc., hydraulics. 

Engineering. 

Surveying. 

Practical Physics. 

Electrical Technology. 

The Chemistry of fermentation and putrefaction. 

Crystallography^ 

The Chemistry of oils (mineral and vegetable) and fats. 

The Chemistry of dyes. 

With the view to assist in the introduction into the public elemen- 



512 Repoet of the 

tary and other schools of Manual Training and of improved methods 
of Science teaching, the following courses of instruction, adapted to 
the requirements of teachers, are being given : 

1. Carpentry and joinery. 

2. Experimental Physics. 

Summer courses of lectures and laboratory work for teachers and others are given 
during the month of July : 

1. On the Mechanics of construction. 

2. On Chemistry, with special reference to the requirements of architects, build- 
ers and engineers. 

3. On the testing of dynamos and motors. 

4. On Graphical Statics. 

5 On methods of determining the fundamental standards of electrical measure- 
ments. 

6. On gas manufacture. 

7. On the technology of cellulose and paper manufacture. 

8. On lighting, warming and ventilation. 

9. On style and styles in building. 



Among affiliated institutions, we have space for only a brief notice of 

The Finsbury Technical College, 

which is conducted with a degree of energy and intelligence that are 
already bearing fruit in an overcrowding of students, and in the 
hearty support of the managers of industrial works in its neighbor- 
hood. 

It was opened on the 19th day of February, 1883, and was erected 
at a cost of about £36,000, to serve as a model Trade School for the 
instruction of artisans, and of other persons preparing for intermediate 
posts in industrial works. 

It consists of a school of applied Science and Art. There is a day 
and an evening school. The latter provides systematic instruction for 
those who are engaged in the staple industries of the district, includ- 
ing cabinetmaking ; and in the application of chemistry, mechanics 
and physics to special trades, such as spirit rectification, mechanical 
engineering, electric lighting, etc. 

An approach has been made to the establishment of a relationship 
between this College and the principal middle class schools of the 
Metropolis, by the award to selected pupils from these schools of ex- 
hibitions enabling them, without payment of fees, to receive in the 
College Scientific and Technical training, fitting them for various oc- 
cupations and industries, as well as for higher Technical instruction. 

The subjects taught comprise mathematics, pure and applied, prac- 
tical mechanics, chemistry, physics, electrical technology, freehand, 
model and machine drawing, workshop practice, French and German; 
and, in the evening, additional classes are held in carpentrj^ and joinery, 
metal plate work, bricklajang, drawing, painting, modeling and 
design. 



iNDtJSTRiAL Education Commission. 513 



The Polytechnic Institute. 

There is one other London institution of a type so nearly unique that 
a full description would be interesting, possibly somewhat more from a 
moral and social point of view than with reference to the requirements 
of systematic education, though it has a manifest claim to distinction 
on the latter ground. It is known as the Polytechnic Institute, situ- 
ated in the heart of London, with 3,000 students actually engaged in 
its courses of study and 7,000 more enrolled in its various sections, 
attended almost entirely by young men and women who are em- 
ployed in daily toil, and supported by the large-minded generosity of 
a single man, Mr. Quintin Hogg, at an annual expense (over receipts) 
of from $30,000 to $35,000. From the smallest beginnings it has 
grown to be a great moral and educational force which is now attract- 
ing public attention and has won the warm approval of such eminent 
men as Lord Hartington, Lord Selborne, Sir Lyon Playfair, Mr. 
Mundella and others. Without detailing the numerous courses of 
literary and technical instruction, we can best present a general view 
of the work of the Institute, by quoting portions of a descriptive ac- 
count which appeared in the London Times ^ April 23, 1888, as fol- 
lows : 

The success of the venture has been astonishing. More than 10,000 boys and 
young men have their names upon its books, and already the second house has 800 
young women upon its list, most of them the sisters or the friends of the members 
of the Institute. The cost of maintenance amounts to between £14. 000 and £15, 000 a 
year ; the receipts from fees to about £9,000, and the deficit, which thus amounts to 
between £5,000 and £6,000 a year,has been, till now, entirely met by Mr. Quintin Hogg. 
* * * The visitor who makes his way thither between seven and ten o'clock 
on any week day evening will find every room occupied by numbers of lads and 
young men, from seventeen years old upwards, either harmlessly amusing them- 
selves or studying in class. There is a refreshment and reading room, where some 
boys are having tea or supper, some are reading the newspapers, some are playing 
chess or draughts. * * * Of one great room most ingeniously varied use is 
made — in the summer it is a swimming bath ; in the other seasons of the year, com- 
fortably carpeted and arranged with chairs and tables, it is made into the chief read- 
ing room of the place. In another room on certain days in the month, you may see 
some fifty nicely dressed and rather shy looking lads seated at long tables at their 
tea, while some senior friends entertain them with music or with talk. These are 
the "new fellows," who are thus allowed to enter the great world of the Polytech- 
nic in a pleasant way, which robs them very soon of all feeling of strangeness, and 
enables them to fortify themselves with friends. Indeed, very admirable and special 
provision is made for the reception of new members ; three of the seniors are ap- 
pointed "new members' secretaries," and it is the business of one or other of them 
to be present every evening in a certain room, there to receive any new member 
who desires information, or who prefers to spend his evening out of the crowd. 
Passing into another room we find a debating society in full work, a young man on 
his legs stumbling through a speech on the Irish question, or declaring for or against 
Church and State. In a large hall close by * * * a certain number of youths, 
unfortunately not very many, are going through military drill. In the other and 
still larger hall a much gayer sight is to be seen, for here the gymnastic instructor, 
a color sergeant in the Guards, is taking his numerous and energetic class through 

33 Ed. Com. 



514 Repoet of the 

their exercises. From 50 to 100 lads are there, most of them in flannels, and are for- 
getting the workshop and the counter in the physical delight of exercise. The 
evening winds up with the performance, to the music of a band, of a sort of rapid 
figure dance, as complicated and as pretty to the eye as the famous equestrian dance 
in which Ascanius led the young Trojans in Virgil. Perhaps, after this is over, if 
the visitor is in high favor with the authorities, he will be allowed to see some of the 
prize winners perform on the parallel bars or on the trapeze ; and it is no exaggera- 
tion to say that nothing that the University gymnasiums can show can at all com- 
pete with or approach the skill of these young men, these auctioneers' clerks, these 
tailors, these carpenters of London. * * * 

Gymnasium and recreation rooms, however, are not beyond the scope of many 
other Institutes to be found in London and the country. What differentiates the 
Polytechnic from all others is the elaborate system of technical instruction which is 
open to its members. These members, it may here be said, are admitted on pay- 
ment of a subscription of 35. per quarter, which entitles them to the free use of the 
library, social rooms, gymnasiums, etc., and admission to all the entertainments, 
while, for the technical classes, small fees have to be paid. The classes are of two 
kinds, science and art clssses, which are held in connection with the Department at 
South Kensington ; and industrial classes, w^hich are independent, but which are 
more or less informally related to the City and Guilds of London Institute of Tech- 
nical Instruction and also to the London Trades Council. The industrial classes, 
again, are sub-divided into classes of mechanics and into " practical trade classes" for 
apprentices and young workmen, and it is these last which are the special feature of 
the Institute. Among them we find classes for various branches of engineering, for 
cabinet-making and carpentry, including such subordinate departments as the 
making of staircases and hand railing ; we find classes in wood and stone carving, 
in tailor's cutting, in sign-writing and in practical watch and clock making ; classes 
in carriage building, in printing, in land surveying and leveling, in plumbing and 
tool-making and many other trades. In all these cases it is a condition that no one 
is to be admitted who is not already engaged, say as an apprentice, in the trade, for 
the managers of the Institute see how important it is that they should not incur the 
hostilitj^ of the London artisan organizations by turning out imperfectly trained and 
amateurish workmen to compete with them in the market. The wonder is that 
young men can be found who care to spend their evenings in doing much the same 
work as that they have been employed upon all day ; but such unquestionably is 
the case, and the class rooms are well filled with lads making engines, carving ^vood, 
shaping bricks, or learning the best method of cutting out cloth. They are led partly 
by the genuine desire of learning, and partly by the wish to better themselves ; for 
example, a young plasterer, who as yet knows only the plainer elements of his craft, 
comes to the Polytechnic to learn modeling and cornice molding, and when he has 
learnt his lesson, he, perhaps, emigrates to America and finds himself able to earn 
something like four times the wages which he had been earning as a simple plas- 
terer in London. In the engineering room, where there is a certain amount of 
machinery worked by a central gas engine, a dozen young men may be seen pro- 
foundly interesting themselves in the forming of a screw, or in adapting some 
roughly-cast bolt to the required purpose, and the room is full of iron lathes and 
other small machines, every detail of which has been made and finished on the spot 
by the boys. 

The variety of the classes is very great indeed. Here are a few of the announce- 
ments made at the beginning of the last term, and it should be premised that the 
fees for the classes vary from 2s. 6d. to 10s. 6d. per quarter to members of the Insti- 
tute, non-members being allowed to attend on payment of an increased fee. Mr. H. 
J. Spooner lectures on geometry and machine drawing, Mr. L. J. Butler on carriage 
building, Mr. Andrew Clark, F. R. C. S., on first aid to the injured, Mr. Hasluck on 
elocution, Mr. Herrmann on watch and clock making, Messrs. Horton and Wilson 
on short hand writing, Mr. E. R. Alexander on printing, Mr. H. L. Ramsey on sign 
writing, Mr. George Scarman on upholstery, cutting and draping, Messrs. Charles 
Mitchell and Young on building construction, Mr. H. W. Richards on brick cutting, 
and In the ladies' department Mrs. Elliott Scrivener on dressmaking and dress cut- 



Industrial Education Commission. 515 

ting. The results are eminently satisfactory, if we can judge from the success of 
the Polytechnic pupils in the ditferent technical examinations, for they almost 
always stand at the head- 

The work of the Polytechnic Institute has been very favorably judged by those 
most competent to form an opinion upon it. It has obtained the approval of the 
London Trades' Council and of two Royal Commissions, and has been commended 
in the most encouraging way by the Commissioners of City Charities. The London 
Trades' Council on April 10, 1883, passed the following resolution: " That the system 
of trade teaching adopted at the Polytechnic Institute be recommended to the Lon- 
don trades." Three months later the same council resolved that — " In the opinion 
of this delegate meeting of trades, any system of technical, scientific, or theoretic 
instruction for our industrial population should be accompanied by practical teach- 
ing by competent trade teachers, based upon workshop practice, in harmony with 
the requirements of ordinary business pursuits, similar to the trade instruction 
given at the Polytechnic Institute." More recently Mr. Woodall, M. P., a member 
of the Royal Commission on Technical Education, said that "he had, in connection 
with the Royal Commission, visited nearly all the technical training schools on the 
Continent and he could safely say that he had not seen one in which such a thor- 
oughly practical system was followed as in the Polytechnic Institute." * * * 

As we have said at the outset, the need for technical education is one which is 
every day becoming more present to the public mind. Our commercial prosperity 
is being threatened by competition all over the world, and assuredly it will be im- 
possible for us to keep our markets unless our workmen succeed in putting them- 
selves on a level with the best workmen in Berlin, Paris or Philadelphia. The way 
to this result is through technical education, and this, like every other kind of edu- 
cation, whether for high or low, cannot be self-supporting. If Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, Eton and Winchester, flourish by means of endowments ; if every elemen- 
tary school in England is kept at work by means of subsidies from the government, 
from the ratepayers, or from private subscribers, it is not surprising that technical 
schools should require help of the same kind. * * * 



Messrs. Mather and Piatt's "Workshop School (Manchester). 
[From the Report of the Royal Commissioners.] 

Under the guidance of Mr. Mather, the Commissioners inspected the 
school room and examined specimens of the students' drawings there 
exhibited. 

Mr. Mather stated that there are 68 scholars in the school, which is 
designed to provide science teaching for the apprentices employed in 
the works. No strangers are admitted. The drawings are of work 
actually in progress in the foundry. The teacher lectures upon them 
and explains and makes calculations, and the lads next day at the 
works see the very thing they have heard about here. They are al- 
lowed to go through the shops in all directions with the teacher from 
time to time. 

For the purpose of practical illustrations from work in process of 
construction, patterns, models and details of machines are brought 
into the school from the workshops. The great feature is that tech- 
nical instruction is imparted by the aid of objects being actually con- 



516 Eeport of the 

structed in the workshops under the observation of the apprentices, 
and which are manufactured for sale. The parts of machines which 
are brought to the school for class instruction are seen by the students 
afterwards in their proper places in the whole machines. 

{Chairman.) Can you give us your opinion as to the best method 
of combining instruction with actual experience in the workshop ? 

Undoubtedly the school should be part of the workshop, and form 
a department in which the apprentice must be compelled to serve a 
portion of his time every week after the ordinary hours in the work- 
shop as a condition of his apprenticeship. A school incorporated thus 
in the workshops affords facilities for the acquiring of technical 
knowledge which no science school of the ordinary kind, apart from 
workshop practice, can possibly offer. The teachers here are draughts- 
men in our own works, duly qualified, who by this teaching add to 
their ordinary income. Schools of this character are simple and in- 
expensive, and such as every large employer can establish. 

Chairman (to Mr. Jones^ the teacher). Do we understand that the 
students make sketches from the objects themselves, or that they 
avail themselves of diagrams? 

Sometimes from the pattern, sometimes from the object itself in 
the works, and sometimes from diagrams which I prepare of objects 
which are being made in the works. Where we have the sketches we 
have the patterns here, and sometimes ask the students to measure 
the patterns and see whether there are any mistakes in the dimen- 
sions. 

The diagram's are not allowed to be copied ? 

No. The drawings have to be made to a different scale. The 
drawings serve only to give the student a general idea of what the 
thing is like, the students have to work from the dimensions given. 

Do they make sections also ? 

Yes, they make sections of everything. There are in the sketches 
two views, and they have to make a third deduced from the two. 

You let them make a view, either a section or elevation, which is 
not shown at all in the drawing, and which they have to devise from 
what is on the sheet ? 

Yes. [Mr. Jones then exhibited a pattern and stated that he con- 
sidered it an advantage to make the boys work to scale from the pat- 
tern as it teaches them to understand pattern making and molding as 
well.] 

These are patterns of casts actually made in the works ? 

Yes. The use of this collection of patterns is to show how the 
whole objects are cast with the use of cores, and it forms a part of our 
course of machine construction and applied mechanics. The pattern 
and the finished object are here placed together, so that the student 
can see the mode in which the finished cylinder is to be cast from the 
pattern by the use of the cores. 



Industrial Education Commission. 517 

Do you think that the South Kensington models are behind the 
time ? 

No, I think that the models for the illustration of geometry are 
very good. We have never had that collection. We have never 
made application for it. With respect to coloring and finishing, I 
consider this a sort of luxury, and it must not be indulged in until the 
scholars can draw details well and understand them. This is the re- 
verse of the practice followed in the ordinary schools. [Examples 
were shown of a student's work done in the class, where he had drawn 
incorrectly a bolt and nut in a plummer block; by the side of this 
drawing was placed one of a marine engine, colored and shaded, 
which he was supposed to have done three or four years previously 
at a high class boarding school. Since he became a student of the 
works class he has shown no ability whatever as a draughtsman ; he 
had been repeatedly shown the correct method of drawing a bolt and 
nut.] 

{Mr. Swire Smith.) How many nights a week do the students come ? 

Two nights. Three hours on Monday, principally for lectures on 
applied mechanics, steam and engineering. [Handed in to the Secre- 
tary copies of class examination papers and other papers.] I have 
tested examinations once a session. Out of 28 students in applied 
mechanics, I passed at the last examination 12 first class and 12 
second class. 

{Chairman.) Will you allow me to ask you what your own educa- 
tion has been ? 

I was educated at Peter Street School till 11 years of age. Then 
worked at the bench as a photographic instrument maker. I at- 
tended the Salford Working Men's College, learning drawing and 
mathematics at night, and obtained the gold medal there for geometry. 
This institution is similar to the Mechanics' Institution, but smaller. 
The Secretary asked me to attempt the teachers' examination and 
after I had passed the examination I was induced to take a class by 
the agent of the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes. I have 
now been teaching 17 years. I taught at various institutions about 
Lancashire and Cheshire, until I found that under the South Ken- 
sington system of payment by results you cannot live by teaching 
alone, so I had to do something else in addition. 

You are now employed as a draughtsman by Messrs. Mather & 
Piatt, and you are remunerated for the instruction given here by the 
grant from the Science and Art Department and the class fees ? 

Yes. 

It has been alleged that there is no great inducement to take the 
upper Standards, and that to pass students in the lower stage is more re- 
munerative than to pass advanced and honors students. What is 
your experience ? 



518 Report of the 

My experience is that the elementary stage is the only one that 
pays for the labor expended. 

Therefore, there is a tendency on the part of teachers to cast oiF 
those who have passed in the elementary stage, and to bring forward 
a fresh set of students ? 

Yes, that is the tendency of the present system. The honors stage 
is purely honor, both to student and teacher, and does not pay at all. 
In the last year I passed two in honors in geometry. 

In your case this tendency is counteracted by a sense of duty to the 
firm? 

I confess I never felt this tendency, not from any sense of duty 
to the firm particularly, but from a sense of duty to the earnest 
student. I feel proud to teach an honors student, and am at the 
present time teaching about 12 such students. 

What is the advantage of the students being persons employed in 
the works, and being trained here rather than in science classes ? 

The advantage is that I know what each person is working at every 
day, and have the opportunity of pointing out something connected 
with the work he is doing. I make the teaching have an actual bearing 
on his every day work. The students are rewarded not only for pro- 
ficiency in drawing but for regular attendance, and actual proficiency 
in their manual work. It is also a condition of employment that they 
should be regular in their attendance here. 

{Chairman to Mr Mather.) What advantage have the works de- 
rived from the establishment of these schools ? 

An incalculable advantage. We have to send out abroad yearly 
one, two or more thoroughly competent men, who shall not be simply 
mechanics in the ordinary sense of the word, but who shall be able to 
turn their attention to any kind of mechanical work coming within 
their duties, whether they have done the work before or not. We had 
the greatest difficulty in finding such men, until we began to take 
them from this school, and since the school has been established we 
have been able to send boys at 20 to 21 to long distances from Eng- 
land, and to place in their hands work which they have not had much 
to do with before, and by their own intelligence they have made com- 
petent teachers of others, and given the greatest satisfaction. We 
have had cases of students not yet of age holding positions with wages 
at £4 ($20) per week. 

Do you apprentice your young boys ? 

We do not legally apprentice them. We have only their promise. 
They are earning wages all the time. 

Do you find that they become good workmen at an earlier age be- 
cause of their training in the school ? 

Undoubtedly. Little as I come into contact with the various indi- 
viduals in the works, I have seen during the last few years a vast 
improvement in all the work these young fellows do, and more re- 



Industrial Education Commission 519 

sponsible work can be given them. Lads at 17 and 18 have work 
which before we would not have given to men under 25. 

{Mr. Woodall.) Is this resented by the other mechanics? 

Not in the least. 

Do you employ a large number of men who are members of the 
Amalgamated Society of Engineers ? 

They are almost entirely so. 

And they show no jealousy in any way of the systems you adopt, 
either of tuition or of giving early employment to boys when they are 
fit for putting on good jobs ? 

On the contrary, they seem lo like it, and are pleased at the lads' 
progress. 

Can you say the same with respect to the trades generally that are 
employed in your works ? 

Yes. 

(To Mr. Jones.) Do you find that the foremen have any jealousy 
of you as a teacher ? 

There is no jealousy whatever. They are always ready to give me 
assistance as a. teacher. 

{Professor Roscoe to Mr. Mather.) Are you aware of any other 
works in the neighborhood of Manchester, or even in Lancashire, 
where this teaching method is adopted ? 

I do not know of any. 

The Commissioners were then conducted over the works by Mr. 
Mather, and the chairman obtained the following statement from Mr. 
Thorp, general manager. 

( Chairman.) What is the effect upon your workshop of the training 
which your boys receive in the school ? 

{Mr. Thorp.) Instead of requiring draughtsmen to look after, 
every separate job. the young fellows who are growing up now, can 
make their own drawings, make their own patterns, and fit them 
together and erect them, where it used to require a separate man for 
each department. The men are most intelligent, and understand and 
can execute their work much better at a much earlier age. We form 
thus our own foremen from the boys who have been in the school. 
We do not find any dissatisfaction or awkwardness with the trade 
union. 

We shall be glad to hear any evidence you have to give on the 
subject? 

May I first mention the branches of trade with regard to which 
1 desire to speak ? I am thinking especially of designers for pot- 
tery, for woven and for printed textile fabrics, and for what is 
known as art metal work. In all these businesses recourse is con- 
stantly had by designers to organic form. We find both in ancient 
work and in work of our own day, that designs consist mainly of re- 



520 Keport of the 

productions and of combinations of the lines of organic form, especi- 
ally of plant form, but often also of animal form. Now, the people 
of our large towns who form the majority of our population are evi- 
dently living under great disadvantage, as they have no beautiful 
organic forms before them, in their early years when taste is formed, 
when intellectual habits are created also, they very rarely see any of 
those beautiful forms which, throughout all ages, have been repro- 
duced in design. Of course we know that not simply the familiarity 
with organic forms which the eye gains by resting on them is needed 
for training the taste and giving the knowledge which can afterwards 
be used for making designs, but that the eye must also be made per- 
ceptive of beauty of form. The Art Museum, on behalf of whose 
committee I have asked to be allowed to give evidence, sees the im- 
mense difficulties our people labor under, and it is trying to meet 
them in this way : it proposes to lend to every primary school in 
Manchester and Salford, and to every Sunday school, collections on 
loan of the best representations which can be got of those natural 
objects which the people of towns have opportunities of seeing on 
their occasional visits to the country, and, if they choose, to cultivate 
plants which they have before them in their own houses. The com- 
mittee do this, because they are convinced that observation of art 
and observation of nature are constantly interactive ; that if you 
train a child to look with attention and with pleasure on the repre- 
sentation of any flower, when it sees that flower it will look at it with 
far more pleasure and closer attention than it wou Id have done if 
its attention had never been brought to the representation of the 
flower; and, after seeing with interest any natural object, it will look 
with increased attention at the picture when it is again asked to attend 
to that. The committee is forming collections of representations not 
only of flowers and the foliage of flowering plants and trees, and of 
the difi'erent grasses, but also of the animals, birds and insects which 
are to be found in this country. They give special attention to the 
commoner plants and the commoner animals, because these are, of 
course, the kinds the children have the most frequent opportunities of 
seeing. They have found the greatest difficulty in meeting with 
representations at once accurate and beautiful, and they believe it is 
very desirable that, under Government supervision and with Govern- 
ment aid, collections of drawings of the kind I refer to should be 
formed and ofl'ered, either at cost price or less than cost price, to the 
promoters of art museums and picture galleries throughout the coun- 
try, and, independently of these, to the managers of schools. 



Industrial Education Commission. 521 

Manual Instruction in the Manchester Board Schools. 

The board have arranged to ^ive instruction in the use of tools in 
two schools. 

Lancasterian Board School. 
Sharp Street Board School. 
For this purpose tools, etc., have been purchased to the following 

amounts : 

£, s. d. 

Benches, 22 

Set of tools, 22 16 4 

Lathes, 24 

68 16 4 (about $340). 

Two boys work at each bench. The boys in standard lY and up- 
wards work 1| hours each per week. A lesson on timber and tools is 
given once a week to the boys, who work collectively. The cost of 
timber for the past three months has been about £2 ($10). 

A joiner in the employ of the Board superintends the boys at 
work, and a special teacher gives the lesson. 

The work takes place at the latter part of each day, and takes a 
portion of the ordinary school time. 

The boys like the work very much, and the parents appear to be 
interested. Cases have occurred in which boys have brought special 
wood to make special things for home. 

The Board have also sent £140 ($700) to Paris for the special pur- 
chase of models for the machine construction classes, and accepted a 
special tender for models to be made for the classes in building con- 
struction last winter. 

It is proposed in September next to commence all the Art classes 
conducted by the Board, and those in machine construction, on the 
plan of those in Paris. 

A new Art room is in process of erection at the Deansgate school, 
and this will, / helieve, be fitted up on the model of the Parisian art 
schools. 

The School Board, at the Science and Art examinations now being 
conducted, have applied for 3,073 papers in Art and Science for the 
use of the pupils of their various classes in the town. I may also add, 
that in the estimates of the expenditure for the year 1883-1884, an 
amount was specially put down for manual instruction. 

In practical chemistry the Board have 271 pupils sitting in May. 

South Corporation Industrial Schools. 

The Commissioners visited these schools in the course of the after- 
noon. These schools have been established under Lord Sandon's 



522 Report op the 

Education Act. with the object of providing a suitable education and 
training for the very lowest class of children, whom it is found im- 
possible to make attend the ordinary Board school. The children are 
admitted from 6 o'clock in the morning and are kept till 6 o'clock in 
the evening. They are subjected to a good course of elementary 
education, but a portion of their time is utilized in the teaching of 
some useful occupation, and they are fed plainly, but w^ell, during 
their attendance in school. There are 200 children in daily attend- 
ance, about equally divided as to sex. In cases where parents have 
means, they are required to pay for the food and education of their 
children. The food costs about Is. Qd. (about 37 cents) per week per 
child, and each child receives three meals per day. Many of the 
children have neither shoes nor stockings, and a large proportion are 
in rags. It would be difficult to find a similar number of children, 
seemingly more depraved or destitute. The children are examined 
each morning when they come to the school. There are warm and 
cold baths on the premises in which they are subjected to a cleansing 
process, when necessary, and their clothes frequently requires to be 
disinfected. 

There are two skilled workmen who superintend the industrial 
operations, such as the making of door mats, etc., and who also seek 
up the children when absent. Under the discipline of the excellent 
matron and her staff, the children make marvelous progress in their 
school work, and in general civilization. They like the school as is 
testified by the fact that 95 per cent of those on the register are in 
average attendance. 

Owens College (Victoria University). 
* * * * * ** * * 

I will only state here that two clear principles have been kept in 
view by us all along— (1) that a sound knowledge of principles ought 
to precede this practical application ; and (2) that in teaching the ap- 
plications we shall not aim at superseding that practical training 
which can only be gained in the manufactory or the workshop. We 
do not see any reason to doubt the soundness of these principles, and, 
so far as our experience goes, no difficulty need be found in drawing 
the line between those applications which may, and those which may 
not, be with advantage introduced into our instruction, 

On the one hand we believe that, so far as the absence of endow- 
ments for this special object has allowed, we have been able to con- 
tribute important services to our district by way of sending out a 
number of well instructed young chemists and engineers, and on the 
other hand that we have not sufi'ered from the danger, which was not 
unreasonably anticipated by many, that the strictly scientific charac- 
ter of our teaching in these branches might be sacrificed to the needs, 
or fancied needs, of students that came to us to study Science with an 



Industrial Education Commission. 523 

eye mainly to its application. To illustrate my meaning I will ven- 
ture to say that no chemical laboratory in the kingdom has sent out 
a larger number than ours has . sent of young chemists, qualified to 
take important parts in factories and chemical works, and yet it 
will, I think, be admitted that our laboratory has also not been unsuc- 
cessful in the contributions it has made to the progress of chemistry 
as a pure science — contributions, too, not by the professor and lec- 
turers only, but by not a few of its students of chemistry who are 
under training. 



524 Keport of the 



IV. RUSSIA. 

EXTRACTS FROM NOTES ON TECHNICAL, EDUCATION, IN 1884. 



By William Mather. 



[From the Report of the Royal Commissioners, Vol. III.] 

Russia differs from all other European countries in not possessing 
some national system of elementary education. This may be ac- 
counted for by the institution of serfdom, which, up to 1860, excluded 
what we should call the '^ working classes " from all rights beyond 
those accorded to them at the pleasures of their owners. Education 
in the most elementary form may, here and there, have been given 
in the villages by the priests if the proprietors permitted or encour- 
aged it. In the towns no provision whatever was made by the au- 
thorities for the education of the laboring classes previous to the 
emancipation. 

On the other hand, the Government has for many years paid con- 
siderable attention to the formation of educational institutions for the 
families of military and civil officials, the professional classes, and all 
grades of the nobility. To such institutions the sons of merchants 
have also been admitted, but the latter have had to depend chiefly on 
private tutors, and largely upon the advantages offered in other coun- 
tries, or in Finland, the Baltic provinces, and Poland, which are 
politically parts of Russia, but retain to some extent their own social 
Institutions, and have long possessed greater facilities for general 
education, in proportion to the population, than those existing in 
Russia proper. 

In such towns as St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver, Tula, Kharkof, Kief, 
Kazan, Saratot andOdessa, Colleges (Real-schulen) and Gymnasia have 
long existed, and in some of them also Universities. There are not more 
than 20 towns in Russia proper having over 50,000 inhabitants, and 
not more than 150 having over 10,000. The urban population is ex- 
tremely small compared with the whole number of inhabitants. Exact 
statistics are not easily obtained, but it is within the mark to state 
that not more than 10,000,000 out of a total population of about 80,- 
000,000 dwell in what we should designate '' towns," using this term 
in its narrowest sense. 

The rest of the population is spread over a vast territory, in small 
communities, pursuing rural occupations under conditions of agricul- 
ture and the holding of land, since the emancipation, which will 
yield enough, with something to spare in the most fertile districts, to 
those peasants who are frugal and thrifty. Notwithstanding that all 



Industrial Education Oo3Imission. 525 

the serfs received a grant of land with their freedom about 22 years 
ago, the inferior quality, or the want of means to improve it, has 
made it impossible, in a great number of cases, for the peasants to 
wholly maintain their families in their own communes or villages. 
Hence there is a great deal of migration, the heads of families move 
in search of employment to long distances, leaving children to the 
care, or neglect, of their relations. The parents will even separate one 
from the other, and live hundreds of miles apart from Easter to Easter 
when all work ceases for one week to a month, among handicraftsmen 
and in all kinds of manufactories, and family reunions take place 
amid the religious festivals of the Russian Church. 

These migratory habits are on the increase since the extension of 
the railway system. 

The only education at present available in the villages is a certain 
amount of instruction which it is the duty of the village priest 
to impart, but over which there is no control. There is no village 
where a priest is not stationed or a church does not exist. Sometimes 
a group of little hamlets a mile or two apart will have a church and 
one school in common. The priests are generally men of very meagre 
education, with large families, and a small quantity of land which 
they have to till, often with their own hands, to secure a livelihood 

It Will readily be seen that such conditions are not favorable to educa- 
tion, even in the narrowest sense of the word. Some children ac- 
quire reading and writing imperfectly if they are naturally bright, 
but as there is no systematic superintendence of public instruction 
on the part of any authorities, the masses of the people are still 
growing up in ignorance, and the vice of intemperance is one of the 
most painful results of it. 

There are, however, some indications of improvement, which I must 
mention. 

The reforms following upon the emancipation of the serfs included 
a system of communal government in the villages, the establishing of 
county boards of jurisdiction in the rural districts, and the extension 
of municipal institions in the towns. * * * * 

Whenever in a certain locality the people themselves have taken 
an interest in these new institutions, and worked them well, a marked 
change has been made in the educational facilities of the place. 1 
have been the guest of the mayor of a small town in the interior of 
Russia, who, at the time of my visit, was deeply engaged in the build- 
ing of what promised to be a remarkably ^ood school. It was the 
work of the municipality, with some assistance from the county 
board, and was intended to be a high school with a small manual 
trainmg department attached. There is no reason why all towns 
should not have done likewise, and some may have done so. I have 
personal experience of the influence which a few enlightened men 
can now exercise when they take the trouble to avail themselves of 



526 Report of the 

the representative institutions which give the power to administer 
local affairs. The apathy, however, manifested by the public gener- 
ally in making the utmost use of the powers granted by the Govern- 
ment is not encouraging. The sense of personal responsibility is 
doubtless of slow growth in a country subject to autocratic rule for 
centuries, even when local self-government is permitted. Hence the 
question of public instruction has not yet become a matter of suffi- 
cient interest to move the municipal bodies to establish common 
schools in any considerable number in the towns. The mother city of 
Russia, Moscow, is lamentably short of such schools, though there is 
a great wealth in the community, and an enormous trade is carried 
on in this central market of the Empire. 

Of what we should call '• school age," say from 5 to 13, there must 
be about 100,000 children in Moscow requiring a common school edu- 
cation. I could only obtain a record of 55 such schools altogether, 
provided by the municipality, giving accommodation for about 7,000 
scholars.* Two-thirds of these are from the very poor classes. These 
schools are small and all overcrowded. The course of instruction 
comprises religion (as taught by the Orthodox church), reading, writ- 
ing, arithmetic, grammar, history and geography. These schools are 
for both sexes. The girls preponderate, but they leave earlier than 
the boys, generally when they have some knowledge of reading and 
writing ; the boys remain longer as a rule, with the hope of obtaining 
some reduction in the time of compulsory military service if they 
can pass certain examinations. 

Apart from these schools, the only opportunity for the poorest 
classes is in a few charity schools, or, when they go to work, in some 
of the manufactories in and around Moscow, in connection with which 
there are (with few exceptions) good elementary schools, f This pro- 
vision is entirely voluntary, and the time allowed for the children to 
attend school during working hours will vary according to the benevol- 
ence of the mill owners and manufacturers. It is the custom to work 
all textile manufactories throughout Russia, excepting in the district 
of St. Petersburg, night and day, with two sets of workpeople in re- 
lays, working six hours each. During the day leisure (from 6 o'clock 
A. M. to 12 o'clock) the children attend school and get such recreation 
as they may care to take. In the evening leisure (from 6 p. m. to 
midnight) they sleep. It is a hard life, and not conducive to their 
studying even the simple lessons put before them. 

There has been hitherto no law in operation in Russia to prevent 
the employment of children of tender years. I have seen, not un- 
frequently, children of not more than seven or eight years of age 
working equal hours with adults. Happily^ law has at length been 

♦About 24 new schools are to be erected shortly by the municipality. 

tin some manufactories there are workshops, or manual training schools, and schools of de- 
sign , The names of Messieurs T. S. Morozoff, A. BaranhofE, Malutin and Prohorofif are worthy of 
special notice in connection with this useful work. 



Industrial Education Commission. 527 

passed to alter this state of things, and during the course of this year 
it will come into operation. It enacts that no children shall be em- 
ployed under 10 years of age, and when 10, only for a limited num- 
ber of hours per day, until they reach the age of 14. * * 

The number of work people engaged in the textile industries is a 
very small proportion of the entire population. There are probably 
about 400 establishments, comprising cotton, linen, and woolen mills, 
and bleaching, dyeing, and print works, etc. The number of people 
employed will vary from 50 to 10,000. There are many manufactories 
giving employment to over 5,000 people, and one or two employ up- 
wards of 10,000 people. The aggregate number of workpeople en- 
gaged in such industries must be under 400,000, of whom a considera- 
ble proportion are children. ***** 

Taking the country as a whole, the mechanical arts and industrial 
pursuits, as distinct from agricultural occupations, are comparatively 
insignificant, and the resources of the country hitherto developed do 
not offer great facilities for such occupations. There has, however, 
been a good deal of ambition shown on the part of the Government, 
to encourage by artificial means, mechanical and manufacturing skill. 
The two great Imperial Technical Schools of Moscow and St. Peters- 
burg have long been classed among the finest in Europe in point of 
equipment and in possessing ample means. * * * 



(a) The Imperial Technical School of Moscow. 

The object of this school is to train civil engineers, mechanical 
engineers, draughtsmen and foremen, and chemists. The complete 
course of studies is a combination of theory and practice. The 
theoretical studies are carried on in large class-rooms amply supplied 
with all necessary apparatus for illustration. The practical lessons 
are given by means of manual work in workshop classes, specially 
arranged for exercise in the use of hand-tools, followed by the con- 
struction of simple machines, or parts of machines, in the workshop 
proper, comprising foundry, smithy, machine-tool and fitting depart- 
ment, and joiners' shop. The products of the workshop are sold or 
put into the museum. There is a loss of some hundreds of pounds a 
year on the sales. 

The foundry is probably the only department which pays its ex- 
penses, and here 25 regular workmen are employed to instruct students 
and make castings. About eight tons of metal a Aveek can be turned 
out in castings. In all departments a few regular workmen are con- 
stantly employed. 

The students enter at 18 to 20 years of age, having first to pass an 
examination or furnish certificates of qualification from other schools. 
The complete course of studies occupies six years ; it extends to seven 
years for those who have not been duly qualified before applying for 



528 Report of the 

admission, and who avail themselves of a preparatory course of one 
year. For the first three years all regular students pass through the 
same studies, after which a separation is made between the students 
of engineering and of chemistry, forming two divisions of the school. 

The practical work in the shops includes the use of hand-tools, 
working in wood, making patterns, turning of metals in foot lathes, 
in which exercise students must pass an examination before they can 
enter the workshop proper, and take part in the construction of ma- 
chines. It is generally the fourth year before students reach this 
stage. * * * * * * * * 

The students work in the shops and laboratories not less than 12 
hours a week. The smithy and foundry are not entered by students 
until the last year of the course, during which 100 hours are devoted 
to these departments. There is a special course for students who, for 
want of the natural ability to pursue theoretical studies, cannot get 
beyond the examinations of the third or fourth year, but who may 
nevertheless possess the practical and constructive faculty. The work 
given to the special class is all of the most practical character ; such 
as the making of working drawings and full- sized drawings of parts 
of machines, making experiments on materials, working longer hours 
in the shops, and generally devoting their time to the application 
to practical construction of the knowledge they have gained in the 
more elementary branches of science. * * * * 

In the workshops about 280 students are at work for some portion 
of each day. The time is divided between machine-tools and hand- 
tools. The manufactured articles consist of simple pumps, water and 
steam valves, boiler fittings, screw presses, etc. * * * 

The school accommodates about 600 students, one-half are boarders, 
of whom about 200 pay the full fee of £45 a year (present exchange), 
the remainder are day students paying £15 a year. 

The endowment of the school, chiefly from the imperial family, is 
large, amounting to about £400,000. 

The income is about £34,000 a year and exceeds the expenditure. 
A large staff of professors, teachers and instructors — all Russian sub- 
jects — conduct the studies. The premises occupy several acres of 
land, and the position renders the school easily accessible from all 
parts of the city. 

This institution has deservedly attracted a great deal of attention 
throughout Europe and in America, owing to the importance of its 
aims and purposes, the ample means it has always enjoyed to carry 
them out, and the length of time it has existed. The results, how- 
ever, cannot be considered satisfactory from a practical point of view. 
The school has had no strongly marked effects upon the development 
of civil or mechanical engineering or of manufacturing industry in 
the last 25 years, during which Russia has extended her railway sys- 
tem enormously and has established what manufacturing industries 



Industrial Education Commission. 529 

she possesses. The presence of foreigners in almost all the important 
positions on railways, in workshops, in mills and print works, etc., 
some of whom have had but littla theoretical scientific training. 
proves that even with the laudable patriotic desire to employ native 
talent in responsible positions ii has not been found profitable to do so. 

There appear to be two fundamental mistakes in the management 
of this institution. 

First, the full course extends over too long a period, and thebtudies 
are of loo theoretical a character. 

Second, The students enter at too advanced an age and leave only 
when they are fully developed men of 25 years old, under ihe ur^ient 
necessity of making a living anyhow, and by age and circumstances 
unable to take employment as improvers in industrial establish- 
ments before recommending themselves as competent engineers fur 
any class of work. The result of this is that they often bring dis- 
credit on their training. * ' * * * * ^ 

The Government has done its utmost to encourage the young men 
from this institution, by showing greater preference for them than for 
foreigners, when it is at all possible to use their services. This year 
an instruction has gone round to all the Government workshoi^s, on 
railways and elsewhere, that not a single manager or foreman must 
be employed who is not, or will not become, a Russian subject. 



(b) The Technological Institute. 

This institution occupies a central position in the city. The build- 
ings cover an area of about 10,000 square yards, and are three stories 
high. In addition there are large open spaces and detached work- 
shops. 700 students are in daily atiendance. The class-rooms are 
large, each giving accommodation for 100 students, the workshops are 
very extensive, and the museum, model room, chemical and physical 
laboratories, are most complete. There are technical laboratories for 
the bleaching, dyeing and printing of textile fabrics, for papermak- 
ing, and sugarmaking. They are all supplied with small woiking 
plant for the use of the students. 

The schools were established in 182S, under the care of the then 
Minister of Finance. In the early days boys were entered at 13, and 
could not enter after 15 years of age. The whole course was for tix 
years, and those who passed successfully were exempt from military 
service. In 1832 the present extensive buildings w^ere erected. In 
1866, a society was formed for the purpose of finding situations for 
successful students. In 1870, another society was Ibrmed for the 
pecuniary assistance of the students. In 1875, a change w^as made in 
the rules of the institution, requiring boys to pass an examination 
31 Ed. Com. 



630 IUport of the 

befoie entrance, which altered the character of the institution, and 
raised the age at which students could enter up to 18 yeais. In 1875, 
there were 900 students in attendance, of whom 300 were free. Dur- 
ing the 56 years of its existence the school has undergone many 
changes, and the results have varied as the management was more 
or less efficient. At the present time, under the direction of Pro- 
fessor Iline, it enjoys a high reputation in Russia, and every place is 
occupied. Besides the president, there are 16 professors, and 32 
teachers, exclusive of the instructors in the workshops. 

One half the students only pay £5 a year. About 150 are free. 
The total income in fees from students is only £2,500 a year. The 
total expenditure is £25,000. The students are admitted without re- 
gard to nationality or religion, but are required to pass an entrance 
examination, or to bring certificates from a Real school or Gymnasium. 
The whole course extends over five years, and is divided into four 
classes, the fifth year being devoted entirely to workshop practice. 
All students pass through the same subjects for the first three years, 
when a selection is made between the mechanical course and the 
course for technical chemistry ; the latter course forming two parts, 
the so-called '' Mechanical and chemical divisions." If, after the 
second year, students are found to be mentally unfitted to advance 
into the higher classes, they are dismissed the school, or the^^ may 
enter the workshops as apprentices for a four years' training as work- 
men. There are ac present 30 apprentices in the institution. 

There is accommodation in the workshops for about 100 students- 
Only a few articles are manufactured in the shops for sale, the value 
of which is not more than £lOO a year. 

The subjects tauglit in the First Course are as follows : 

Mathematics, geometry, difterential calculus, integral calculus, algebra, plane and 
solid geometry, physics, the expansion of solid bodies possessed of specific gravity, 
pneumatics, theoretical mechanics, statics, mechanical motions, freehand and me- 
chanical drawing, theory of shadows and perspective, inorganic chemistry. 

Second Course. — Physics, laws of gases, steam, theory of heat, theory of resistance 
in bodies, elasticity and tenacity, tensile and breaking strains, tempering test, 
ductility of plates, determination of strength of various sul)stances, deflection under 
given strains, inorgacic chemistry. Minerals and and their tests; details of ma- 
chines, bolts, screws, keys, cones, drums, pulleys, fly-wheels ; applied mechanics, 
friction and adhesion. Mechanical powers, puller's, levers, endless screws and 
wedges. Mechanical appliances, parallel motion, reciprocating and rotary motions. 
Laws of hydrostatic pressure, turbines, water-mills, wind-mills, steam engines, 
locomotive and gas engines, injectors, pumps, presses, valves, governors. The art 
of building, and materials for building. Earthworks, stone-work (natural and con- 
crete), wood-work, plaster, cement, paint and glass. Architecture, as a science and 
as an art; its history and styles. Parts of buildings, foundations, roofs, fire-proof- 
ing, arches, staircases and domes. Land surveying, technical and architectural 
drawing. Calculations, theoretical mechanics, geology and mineralogy. 

During the first and second course about 10 hours a week are devoted by all 
students to drawing. 

Third Course. — Mechanical theory of heat, construction of steam engines, details 
and working of all the parts of land and marine engines. Technology of metals, 
cast and wrought-iron and steel. Theory and construction of boilers, fuel, heatmg 



Industrial Education OoMMFssioN. 531 

surface and fire-grate areas. Construction of chimneys, generation of steam, ex- 
plosions, hydrostatics. Hydraulic motors and hj^draulic lifts. Theory and con- 
struction of cranes. Measurement of heat and steam, saturated steam, superheated 
steam and condensation. Mechanical projection. Analytical chemistry, organic 
chemistry, chemical technology of mineral bodies. Acids and alkalies. Anatomy 
and physiology of plants. Technical chemistry. Laboratory work. Technology 
of organic bodies. 

J^o^r^/i CoM7-5e.— Technology of fibrous substances. Manufacture of cotton and 
cotton fabrics. Grinding corn. Construction of wind-mills (mechanical and chemi- 
cal divisions). Theory and instruction in heating and ventilating buildings (me- 
chanical and. chemical divisions). Theory and construction of locomotives (me- 
chanical division only). Theory and construction of machines used in the manu- 
facture of iron. Blowing engines, steam hammers. Rolling mills, shearing, punch- 
ing and riveting machines. Machine tools. Qualities ot castiron. Difi'erent modes 
of melting cast iron. Molding, machine construction, designs of steam boilers 
with chimne3% steam engines, water wheels and turbines. Technology of organic 
bodies (chemical division only). Oils, tallow, tar, soap, bones and their use. Tech- 
nology of nutritious substances, starch, sugar and potatoes. Preparation of sugar 
from beef-root. Technology of coloring matters, preparation of colors. Machines 
used for bleaching, dyeing and printing. Technical plans of manufactories. 

The object of making technical plans in the fourth course of the chemical division 
is to acquaint the students with the buildings and appliances necessary to carry out 
processes in which chemistry is largely required. Each student has to Vv^ork out 
the plans in detail of one of the following manufactures. Manufacture of sulphuric 
acid, glass, soda-ash, porcelain, etc. 

Fifch Course. — This is devoted to the preparation of plans, full-sized Avorking 
drawings, and practical work in the machine shops, foundry, smithy, joiners' shop 
and in the practical laboratories for dyeing, bleaching and printing, etc. 

The students of the mechanical division give six hours a week to 
constructional drawing and eight hours a week to the designing and 
drawing of manufactories. In the former they have to design bridges, 
truFses, and study the computation of strains, arches, roofs, columns, 
etc. In the latter they are required to prepare plans for machine 
shops, forges, foundries, sawmills and Avater works. In the workshops 
they have to learn the use of tools, filing, turning, planing, screws- 
cutting, molding, smith-work and joiner3^ At the end of the fifth 
course each student is expected to construct some piece of mechanism. 
Sample machine tools by the best makers in Europe are placed in the 
mechanics' shop for the instruciion of the students. Special instruc- 
tion in the tending of steam engines and boilers is given in the last 
year In the chemical division students are engaged in the purifica- 
tion of petroleum, of vegetable, animal and mineral oils; gas manu- 
facture from coal, wood and naphtha, making drawings of the build- 
ings required and the jifferent kinds of furnaces and appliances. 
They have to make researches in the statistics of raw material, im- 
ports and exports. A special course of electricity and its practical 
application has been recently established, but it is optional with the 
students to undertake it. 

Looking over the statistics of this school, it would appear that from 
70 to 100 students graduate after the full five years' course each year. 
There has been steady improvement in the preparation of the students 
in the Real school? and the Gymnasia. The number of those who 



532 Report of the . 

have left of their own accord, or who were sent away in consequence 
of being unfit to pursue the studies beyond the second class, is from 
10 to 15 per cent, each year. About two thirds of the students ap- 
pear to be capable of being transferred to the higher classes from 
year to year. 

It is claimed for this institution that a large proportion of the 
graduates succeed in finding good positions in the Government ser- 
vice, the railways, and in some of the large manufactories of the 
country. Mr. Asaph Baranoff, of Moscow, who has had special op- 
portunities of judging of the results produced by the two institutions 
of Moscow and St. Petersburg, considers ihat the training of the St. 
Petersburg school, so far as chemistry is concerned, is highly efficient 
for experimental purposes. I met a considerable number of 
young men, who were formerly students of the St. Petersburg Tech 
nical School, in several of the large turkey-red dye-works around 
Moscow, yet very rarely have I met with a graduate of either of these 
schools holding a responsible position in a calico printworks, of w^hich 
there are upwards of 50 in the country. I attribute this want of 
practical success on the part of the young men in both the mechani 
cal and chemical industries to the fact that the pursuit of theoretical 
science is over strained, and beyond the requirements of the country 
at the present time. The singular dependency of Russia upon the 
practical knowledge and aptitude of foreigners proves that there is 
but a very limited field for the use of these theoretically trained men 
who leave the technical schools at 25 years of age. I believe \he 
training in both institutions in theoretical science to be sound and 
thorough, but it is more suited to a country highly developed in all 
its resources than to one like Russia, almost wholly agricultural, and 
with manufacturing industry confined to the simpler applications of 
the mechanical arts. 

(c) The Handicraft and Industrial School. 

This is an institution possessing a very fine building, recently erected 
at a cost of about £45,000. The school was promoted by some of the 
members of the Imperial family, together with the town authorities 
and private individuals Its object is to educate and train boys of 
poor parents who are deserving of assistance (and for orphans) in the 
mechanic arts. It also receives a number of boys who are paid for, 
either by their .parents or friends. The boys enter at 12 years of age 
and remain until they are 17. They receive a sound elementary 
education in the following subjects: Reading, writing, arithmetic, 
the Russian language, history, geography, natural history, elementary 
chemistry, mechanics, and physics, technology of metals and wood, 
free hand drawing, mechanical jjrojection, singing and gymnastics. 
The practical work consists of joinery, bootmaking, engraving, paper- 



Industrial Education Co:\rMrssTON. 533 

Iianging, smiths' work, turning, planing and shaping of metals, and 
various articles in ironmongery are manufactured. They sell about 
£600 worth in value of such articles per year. There are 300 boys who 
are lodged, boarded and clothed in the institution. About 20 youths 
leave each year who have no difficulty in finding immediately occupa- 
tion in workshops where they receive abour 12s. per week. The 
course of instruction extends over five years In the first two years 
tliey spend two hours in the workshops and live hours in the classes; 
in the third and fourth years four and a half hours in the workshops 
and five in the classes. In the fifth ytar the whole day is spent in 
the workshops. 

The GirW Department of the same institution is conducted by a 
head-mistress, two scripture teachers, four teachers, two instructors, 
one science teacher and nine teachers of handicrafts. In the girls' 
department a similar elementary education is given. Girls are ad- 
mitted from 10 to 12 years of age and remain until they are 17. A 
considerable number of girls pay for their education, or their friends 
pay for them, to admit them into this institution; the amount of the 
tee charged is j£15 a year for full residence. Semi-boarders pay £6 
a year and daily scholars £3 a year. Besides receiving an ordinary 
elementary education, the girls are taught the cutting out of clothing, 
all kinds of needlework, dressmaking and millinery, lacemaking, 
housekeeping and cooking. The girls of the highest class take in 
turn the management of the household. The united expenditure of 
this institution last year was £16,000, including some new apparatus 
and tools. The total assets of the institution amount to £78,000. 



34 RptORT OF THE 



V. SWEDEN. 



[XoTE.— In 1883 the Belgian Minister of Public Instruction sent Messrs. Sluys and 
Van Kalken to Sweden to study the organization of manual instruction in that 
country. Upon their return, Mr. Sluys presented a report to the njinister. Shortly 
after, the Ministry of Public Instruction was abolished by the clerical majority, 
which had secured possession of the Parliament, and the report was not given to the 
public. In 1885, however, Mr. Sluys himself published it under the title: *'In_ 
struction in Manual Work in Primary Schools for Boys." Of this report the Com- 
mission has translated or condensed the following very considerable portions, partly 
because the observations and conclusions of Mr. Sluys are entitled to great weight, 
as those of an experienced and highly successful normal school principal, and partly 
because Sweden, better than any other countrj^ has solved the difficult problem of 
combining a varied manual training with the ordinary work of the ungraded rural 
school.] 

In many countries of Europe, in the United States and in Japan, 
the movement, which gains in force from year to year, is manifesting 
itself in favor of the introduction of manual training into the primary 
schools for boys. The educational press and the political press is 
actively occupied with this question, especially in Sweden, Finland, 
Norway, Germany, Denmark, Holland, France, Italy, Switzerland, 
Austria, Russia, etc., and Belgium has not remained foreign to the 
movement. Special journals have been established in Germany and 
in Sweden to propagate the idea. The subject has left the domain of 
theory, and in a certain number of primary schools in Sweden, Fin- 
land, Germany and France instruction has been given for some years 
in manual training. 

This movement deserves to be attentively studied. In tends, in fact, 
to introduce into school organization a new element, which will pro- 
foundly modify the existing character of the popular school. When 
we seek the origin of the efforts made in this direction, we find a very 
marked divergence of view among the promoters of the idea. 

If we eliminate details of minor importance, we may reduce to two 
general systems all the theoretical and practical forms which the ques- 
tion of primary instruction in manual work has taken : The economic 
system and the pedagogic system. One party placing itself at the 
purely economic point of view, holds that the primary school should 
aim essentially to awaken and reveal aptitudes ; to develop them and 
to prepare children as completely as possible for the various trades, so 
as to assure them on leaving the school, or soon after, the material 
means of existence. They believe that the creative forces of social 



lis'DUSTRiAL Edt cation Co^imission. 535 

wealth would thus be largely increased. The partisans of the peda- 
gogic system regard manual labor as a means of education adapted to 
give skill to the hand and a general aptitude for the diverse circum- 
stances of practical life, and equally adapted to excite a taste for labor 
and to exercise vigorously the faculties of attention, perception and 
intuition. 

The contrast between these two tendencies is complete. For the 
one, the aim of primary instruction is direct preparation for profes- 
sions or trades ; for the other it is more elevated ard more general ; 
the school should form the complete man ; should develop systemati- 
cally and harmoniously all the faculties of the child without attempt- 
ing to prepare him for a given occupation. The first transforms the 
class room into a school of apprenticeship and annexes the school t.) 
the work-shop ; the other preserves for it its essentially pedagogic 
character by organizing manual labor in it according to the general 
principles which control all primary instruction. 

It is important to study each of these two systems by referring to 
what has been done in Sweden, where they have reached practical 
solutions. 

1. The Bconomic System. 

The principal considerations advanced by the partisans of the 
economic system deserve to be rajjidly set forth. 

The great majority of children in all civilized countries are destined 
to become industrial or agricultural workmen, living from day to day 
upon wages painfully earned. The sub primary and the primary 
school take possession of them and hold them under their discipline 
from three years of age to twelve or fourteen, and during this long 
period give them an instruction which is in direct relation to the oc- 
cupations which they are to engage in. As a whole, this instruction is 
almost the same as that given to the sons of the lurgeois^ although the 
latter are, in general, destined to a wholly different kind of life. They 
will not have to engage in manual labor to secure their existence- 
They will become lawyers, physicians, professors, merchants, manu- 
facturers, etc. The children of workmen and peasants learn to read, 
to write, to cipher; they are taught the first elements of history, of 
geography, of the natural sciences, drawing, singing, etc., but they are 
not subjected in the primary school to a course of training adapted to 
prepare them for the manual occupations which they will have to 
exercise during their whole life. They will have to work in wood, in 
stone, in metals, by means of various tools, and their hand is neve 
specially exercised with this aim, for one can attach no importance, in 
this respect, to the handling of pen and pencil during lessons in writ- 
ing and drawing. Gymnastics itself is useless in this respect. It 
strengthens the muscles, increases the physical energy and the moral 
energy, but hardly develops at all the technical aptitude. 



536 Report of the 

During all the school period, boys who are destined to the rude life 
of the workman acquire sedentary habits. They are obliged by the 
theoretical exercises of the school to remain sitting before a desk five 
or six hours every day. This position enervates their bodies and is little 
adapted to inspire in children a taste for manual exercises. Hence, 
when the critical moment arrives for choosing an occupation, this son 
of a farmer or of a workin^rnan is greatly perplexed He feels himself 
hardly fitted for any trade whatever. His aptitudes have not been 
awakened by the coarse of training to which he has been subjected; 
often, in fact, he feels an unconquerable aversion to all manual labor. 
The condilion ol his lather does not greatly attract him. He has seen 
only its hard and disagreeable features. The father himselt does not 
advise him too strongly, for he does not cease to repeat that if he were 
to begin life over again he would not choose an occupation so difficult, 
so wearisome and so poorly paid. Tn general, t^his boy, if he has 
profited well by the purely theoretical studies of the school, desires 
to engage in a career in keeping with the life which he has spent up 
to this time. He desires to enter the normal school or the seminary, 
or perhaps he dreams of spending his life in an office. These seden- 
tary employments fall in with the habits acquired at school better 
than any trade whatever. The parents, proud of the success of their 
son, hope to see him acquire a brilliant position — thanks to his talents, 
which they ifnagine to be altogether exceptional because they are in- 
capable of appreciating them. They decide to make every sacrifice 
in order that their son may acquire the knowledge necessary to attain 
the position so much envied. Agriculture and manual work are thus 
continually deserted by the most intelligent sons of workmen and 
peasants. Most of them find the employments filled, and swell the 
crowded ranks of the declassed ; constitute in the bosom of our society 
a species of literary proletariat more to be lamented than the indus- 
trial proletariat. 

As for the child of the people who, on leaving the primary school, 
has not received instruction enough to venture to entertain these lofty 
views, he is hesitating when he ought to decide upon a choice. He no 
longer cares to ask himself what is his calling — what are his aptitudes ? 
he is guided by wholly different considerations. Frequently his par- 
ents choose for him, althouj2:h they have only very rarely any precise 
notion of that for which he is adapted. He enters then as an appren- 
tice. He is loaded with difficult tasks — to clean the shop, to blow the 
bellows of the forge, to do errands. During many years the young 
apprentice receives no regular, methodical, technical instruction. 
But, if he does not learn his business, he acquires, in contact with the 
workmen, habits which certainly do not always exercise a good influ- 
ence on his morality. Fortunate is he if he can still, after the fatigues 
of the day, follow for an hour or two the lessons in the adult schools. 



Industrial Education Commission. 537 

which will keep up and develop what he has learned in the primary 
school. 

After some years of this irrational apprenticeship he knows his trade 
but imperfectly. He is a half workman ; his wages are small, and he 
runs great risk of remaining at that stage unless he is unusually 
gifted. Many young people give up their first attempts, change their 
trade again and again, never succeed in completing their apprentice- 
ships, and end by resigning themselves to be messengers, agents, 
clerks, domestics, etc. The want of a methodical organization of ap- 
prenticeship to the trades is thus the cause of an immense loss of pro- 
ductive force. Thus, then, the partisans of the economic system con- 
clude: On the one hand, the primary school does not inspire the taste 
for manual labor, and does not develop technical aptitudes ; and on 
the other hand, apprenticeship in shops is given over to chance, and 
produces scarcely any good results. Is it surprising that, under such 
conditions, accomplished workmen become more and more rare and 
that agriculture makes so little practical progress? 

In order to remedy this situation, to elevate national labor, to put 
a check upon the desertion of manual and agricultural occupations by 
the sons of workmen and peasants, to diminish as far as possible the 
number of the declassed, it is necessary to reorganize the public school 
. — to give it a more practical character; to introduce into it the teach- 
ing of trades; in a word, to establish there a course of training which 
shall closely unite general studies and industrial exercises. 

Such are the conclusions which those reach who place themselves 
especially at the economic point of view in the discussion of the proper 
character of popular instruction. 

In his interesting work upon technical instruction, Senator Cor- 
b^n, after having eloquently set forth the actual defects of appren- 
ticeship in the shops and their deplorable consequences for the work- 
ing classes, in the material, intellectual and moral point of view- 
concludes in favor of the organization of technical instruction, begin- 
ning with the primary school. 

"I believe," says he, ''that every primary communal school ought 
to enlarge the circle of its instruction and become, like the Martiniere,* 
a technical school. It would give to industry so many skilled work- 
men. 

''The extension of the primary school of which I speak would be 
an easy thing for rural schools. The teacher, in most cases, would 
suffice for the work, and the increased expense would be almost noth- 
ing. In cities, and for preparation for the different industrial trades, 
the modification would bj much more expensive, but not so much so 
that it ought to alarm any one. 

"In the city school the teacher can hardly do more than instruct 

* A well-known technical school at Lyons, named for the founder, Mr. Martin. 



53S Report of the 

his classes. There would be needed. I suppose, as many teachers of 
manual exercises as oi primary classes, but no more. 

'•There would be needed one shop at least as large as the class- 
room, and furthermore, a court or some ground. In the shop there 
would be a forge, with anvil, hammers, vises, files, etc. — that is to say 
whatever is indispensable for the making of certain simple products 
in iron. It would be necessary, also, to have some lathes and car- 
penters' benches with the accessory tools. In the court there w^ould 
be some blocks of stone to cut and re cut until they were used up. 

'' If the school has ground enough, it would be well to reserve a 
part of it, and accustom the children to garden it. It is evident that 
the teacher, however intelligent and active he may be, could not be 
at the same time at the forge, the lathe, the bench — in the shop and 
in the court, where the little stone-cutters, the boys with wheelbarrows 
or the gardeners are working, doing everything at the same tiine ; but 
the difficulty would be relieved by the appointment of corporals and 
sub officers — chosen by the pupils from among themselves." 

This utilitarian conception of the school has naturally found numer- 
ous partisans, at a time when industrial labor has received enormous 
development and when questions relating to workingmen have become 
the object of general attention. 

There is a serious foundation of truth in the acute criticism upon 
the actual organization of popular education which \ve have just 
quoted. It is necessary, however, to recognize that it is greatly exag- 
gerated. Those who maintain it place themselves too exclusively 
at a single point of view. They require that primary instruction 
should have for its principal object the direct preparation for the 
manual trades, and they think that the only means of arriving at this 
result is to attach workshops of apprenticeship to the school. Bat the 
true mission of primary instruction is more general, more elevated 
It should develop the child in all his iaculties and his aptitudes; 
should form the man and the citizen, and not the carpenter, the 
blacksmith, the trader or the employe. 

Even from the special point of view of preparation for the manual 
occupations, it is certain that a rational course is pursued in teaching 
children to read, to write, to cipher; in opening their intelligence and 
developing it by exercises of observation upon things lying in the 
domain of nature, the arts and industries; in teaching them drawing 
and geometrical forms; in subniitting. them to a moral regime, and 
in increasing their general energy by gymnastics. It is indisputable 
that children who have successfully followed the complete courses of 
a well organized primary school, are better fitted to learn any trade 
whatever quickly and well, than those who have been left to stagnate 
in ignorance, or who have been sent too early into the shops, the 
mines, the factories — where their health is weakened at the same time 
that their intelligence is stupefied. 



INDUSTRIAL Education CoMMiSbioN. 539 

It is not jast, then, to accuse the primary school indiscriminately 
of being useless in respect to the immediate interests of the popular 
classes; but it is true to say that it has stiil too much of a theoretical 
character, and that it does not develop the technical aptitude. Some- 
thing is needed, beyond question, to improve and complete its organ- 
ization, and we are of opinion that the solution of the problem lies in 
the development of the principles of Froebel's method, which liave 
already entered into our elementary instruction, but 'Ahich have not 
yet been carried into every branch of primary instruction. This we 
shall show further on. 

As to the many inconveniences of apprenticeship in the ordinary 
work shops, they cannot be denied. They are the fatal consequences 
of an economic situation, occasioned by the introduction of machinery 
into industry, and by the division of labor pushed to its extreme 
limits. It does not enter into the plan of our study to set forth this 
question in all its details, and to discuss whether it is for the interest 
of the working classes and of industry to organize a special techni- 
cal school for boys, independent of primary instruction, and form- 
ing a complementary training for children destined to industrial pur- 
suits. 

Let us examine whether, in practice, the apprenticeship to trades 
in the primary school, properly so called, offers important advantages. 

At Gothembourg manual instruct ion is organized in the primary 
schools with reference to its economic results. 

Toward the age of ten or eleven years the children are sent to shops 
attached to all the primary schools. During the first year they are 
subject to a course of rotation — that is to say, they are exercised sue 
cessively in wood working (carpentry, turning, carving), in iron work 
(forging, lockmaking), in work with paper and cardboard (binding), 
with colors (house painting), and with willow (basket-making). More 
importance is attached, apparently, to the working of iron and wood. 
At least that is the impression which several visits to the school have 
left upon us. 

The course of the first year has for its sole aim to give to the pupil 
a first taste for labor ; to allow him to ascertain his fitness and his 
calling, and to choose judiciously the trade which he will definitely 
adopt. He passes several weeks in each shop and learns to handle 
the principal tools there, and to perform the elementary works. 

The second year he indicates what trade he wishes to learn. If he 
finds later that he was mistaken in his choice, he can change his first 
decision and enter another shop ; but this case, as we are informed, 
is very lare. 

The apprenticeship is followed until the age of fourteen years. 

As a measure of economy the shops are placed in the basement or 
under the roof. They are very well furnished with tools, air and 



510 Report of the 

light are abundantly supplied, and the general arrangement leaves 
nothing to be desired. 

The technical instruction is intrusted to select workmen. 

The lessOiiS are given to groups of twelve, on the average, who, 
during their work are all under the exclusive direction of the fore- 
mar^ who is responsible for the order^nd discipline, and the results. 

There is neither method nor programme rigidly determined. The 
foreman of the shop has no other guide than himself, except, of course, 
the instructions given by the special inspector of manual work. Thus 
the succession of exercises is not fixed — in other words, there is no 
series graduated by models, and constituting a methodical whole. The 
works to be executed depend upon the requirements made for the 
needs of the schools. In these shops are made a considerable num- 
ber of objects utilized in the communal schools, such as chalk boxes, 
b ack-boards, counting-frames, iron work ibr desks, barometers, play- 
things of wood and of painted metal, tools for the different shops, 
etc., etc. The products are brought together and exhibited. They 
are sold or distributed among the schools. The work in the shops 
takes place twice a week — four hours at a time — for each section of 
twelve to sixteen scholars. Every year, those who have distinguished 
themselves by their diligence and progress, receive a reward consist- 
ing of tools of the trade in which the}^ are engaging. A sum of 1,00.) 
crowns (about $275), is devoted annually to this distribution of prizes. 

During the year 1883 the number of scholars who followed the 
courses of manual labor in the primary schools rose to 1,776. The 
total expense Was 34,482 crowns, of which 24,105 was paid for salaries, 
and 10,377 for material and for incidental expenses. 

The manufacture of school material and the repairs made in the 
shops were estimated at 11,232 crowns. 

From the fact that the scholars of the different classes of each 
school go to the shops at different hours, an advantage is gained over 
the ordinary teaching force ; the number of teachers required being 
less than that for other classes. It is estimated that this annual sav- 
ing amounts to 6,750 cro\vns. Taking account of all these element Si 
the total expense for technical instruction was reduced to 17,238 
crowns, or 9.70 crowns per scholar per year. 

* * * * The engineer, Mr. Ericson is the organizer and 
inspector of this instruction. He declared to us that neither employ- 
ers, nor workmen, nor parents were unfavorable to the introduction 
into the primary schools of apprenticeship to trades. Those who, at 
at the outset, thought that this innovation had no practical bearing, 
have since recognized their error. The pupils who leave school at 
fourteen years — after three years of apprenticeship — receive, imme- 
diately, a small salary from their employers, because they are already 
able to render some service in the shops. 

Although at first view such a system seems to present real 



Industrial Education Commission. 541 

advantages, we do not think it advisable to establish this in onr 
primary schools. In the first place, regarding it even from the econo- 
mic point ot view, it is very incomplete. It would be, in fact, im- 
possible to attach work-shops of apprenticeship to the primary schools 
for all the trades followed in a given locality. A limit must be placed, 
a choice made, and then the problem of giving technical instruc- 
tion in the primary school remains incompletely solved. By rotaiion 
it is intended to bring the child to a recognition of its aptitudes ; but, 
in reality, he is made to run through onl}^ two or three special shojvs, 
and his choice is narrowly limited. 

Moreover, on what principle shall the trades to be taught in the 
school be selected? Why shall a certain industry be favored lather 
than another? Is it proposed to transform all the children who at- 
tend primary schools into carpenters, or blacksmiths, or basketmakerrf ? 
The reply to these objections is that a more complete organization 
would cost enormously ; that, furthermore, when the young man who 
has learned one trade during three or four years is obliged to under- 
take another, lie makes rapid progress in his new apprenticeship, be- 
cause he has alread}^ acquired the habit and the taste for manual 
labor. This observation is important, but it favors the pedagogical 
system. It is, in fact, the habit and the taste for labor which it is 
necessary to acquire at the primary school, and it is useless to organize 
for this purpose shops of apprenticeship, properly so called. This 
result is reached more completely by methodical exercises specially 
arranged to promote the acquisition of a general aptitude of the hand. 
This opinion prevails in Sweden, and Mr. Hedlund declared to us that 
he had been brought to it in consequence of a thorough comparative 
study of the d liferent systems. 

The apprenticeship to a definite trade should be put ofi until the 
age of fourteen years at least. Children younger than that are jiot 
sufiiciently developed physically and intellectually to undertake it 
with success. What is especially needed in a professional instruc- 
tion like that of the schools of Gothembourg, is a good pedagogical 
direction. 

These exercises do not follow a methodical order because they are, 
in general, subordinate to economic considerations foreign to peda- 
gogical principles. From ten to fourteen years a boy is still only a 
child, and in order that any work whatever may exercise upon him a 
real educative influence, it is necessary, above all, that he become 
keenly interested in it, a thing which can be secured only on condiiion 
that the exercise be varied, graduated and proportioned to his physi al 
strength. Accordingly, we do not think that by the system of ap- 
prenticeship at Gothembourg, sufficient interest can be excited, without 
which no efforts can obtain satisfactory results. Thus, when a child is 
obliged to make a given object — iron work, balls for counting-frames, 
etc., — a considerable number of times, it is necessary that he go over 



542 Keport of the 

the same work incessantly day after day and week after week. After 
the third or fourth time, his interest disappears; one can see from the 
manner in which he hmdles his tools, from his listless air, that he is 
doing a veritable task, quite similar to that of scholars upon whom it- 
was formerly the custom to impose as a punishment the copying ten 
or twenty times of the same page of writing, the same verb, or the 
same lesson. The mechanical repetition of an exercise invariably 
provokes disgust with the work. It will be said that the workman is 
obliged, in many trades, to do the same work over again many times, 
and that it is not a bad thing to make a child acquire the habit oi 
working under the conditions in which he will be placed somewhat 
later; but a child of school age cannot be treated as an adult work- 
man. The workman must work in order to live ; the pupil works in 
order to develop himself, to acquire the taste and the aptitude i'or 
study in general, and for manual skill, and, if the exercise imposed 
upon him are not graded and varied, he executes his task without 
pleasure and quits it without success. 

Furthermore, it is evident that under these circumstances the pupil 
is no more skilful for having made the same object ten or twenty 
times; the second specimen is sometimes better made than the first, 
but the following ones, instead of showing progress in correctness of 
execution, are likely to show the contrary. 

The study of the method adopted in the Normal School at Naas 
will show the superiority of the pedagogic system over that of 
Gothembourg. 

2. The School of Naas. 

(A system of manual training in schools, based upon the pedagogic 
idea.) 

Naas is an ancient lordship, situated in the district of Elfsborg, near 
the line of railroad which unites Gothembourg and Stockholm, and 
about fifty miles from the former. Mr. Abrahamson, on acquiring the 
property some years ago. founded three free schools, to which he gave 
an endowment of 225,000 crowns (about $60,000). His purpose was 
not only to furnish primary instruction to boys and girls of the locality, 
but also to furnish an example of methodical instruction in manual 
training, according to the views of the most advanced educators. The 
primary schools for boys was opened in 1872. It is attended by chil- 
dren from ten to fourteen years, who have already received the first 
grade of instruction in the primary school. [This instruction, which 
is obligatory in Sweden, is given in two grades of schools ; the elemen- 
tary schools, for children from six to ten years, and the public schools, 
for children from ten to fourteen years. 1 Twenty two hours a week 
are devoted to instruction in the following branches : religious instruc- 
tion, the Swedish language, history, geography, the natural sciences, 
reading, writing, drawing, singing, gymnastics, the manual of arms. 



I^'DUSTRiAL Education Co^i^^rissioN. 143 

horticulture. [In Sweden, besides gymnastics, military drill and the 
manual of arms are taught in the schools ] Besides, the pupils work 
two hours every day in the shop. The work is not so directed as to 
prepare the boys especially for trades. The question here is not at all 
how to maintain a school of apprenticeship annexed to the primary 
school. The aim is purely pedagogic; the manual w^ork is made edu- 
cational as much as the other branches of the programme. The teacher 
directs it. By the methodical handling of tools, the making of a hun- 
dred objects, forming a progressive series, the scholars are made to 
acquire a skill — a general address of the hand, which renders them 
fitted, on leaving the school, to undertake, under favorable conditions, 
the apprenticeship to any trade whatever, and to execute without as- 
sistance, works of every kind which present themselves every instant 
in practical life. Furthermore, this instruction constitutes a vigorous 
gymnastic, which contributes, with gymnastics properly so called, to 
re establish in the organism the equilibrium, which is inevitably dis- 
turbed to the detriment of the health of body and mind, by studies 
exclusively intellectual. Finally, it inspires in pupils a taste for labor 
and develops the facul':ies of attention and of intuition. 

Sixteen boys, the youngest eleven and the oldest fourteen years and 
a half, enter the shop. Their joyous air, their unconstrained bearing, 
show with what pleasure they engage in the work. Each one goes 
to his bench, takes his tools, examines them, tries them. Each one 
understands them well, knows how to mount and dismount them, to 
sharpen them, to repair them in case of need. This one observes that 
the blade of his plane projects too far; some blows of the hammer, 
well applied, presently place the tool in its proper condition. Another 
finds his chisel notched ; he goes to the grindstone and sharpens the 
instrument. We see a third, who is setting his saw ; still another 
carefully cleans the file which he is about to use. The instructor, 
during this preparatory work, has been distributing the models. The 
pupils who have a new article to make go, without waiting for 
directions, to select in the wood room the piece of timber or the 
plank, of which they are to make a spoon, a stool, a box, a boot jack. 
a mallet, a nevette or any other article in the series of models. All 
have learned by practice to distinguish the qualities of wood. All 
this is done quickly but without haste and in good order. The 
spectacle becomes truly interesting. The hatchet strikes the block 
squarely; the saws grate; the planes gnaw; the knives cut; the files 
smooth the roughness of surfaces; the sand paper vigorously rubbed 
upon an article gives it finish. It is the humming swarm of labor, 
full of life and movement. The teacher does not directly aid the 
pupils. We see him go from one to another controlling, criticising, 
correcting, encouraging the little workmen. The strictest discipline 
reigns in the shop. It maintains itself naturally because it springs 



5-1:4 Keport of the 

from the labor itself, which exercises upon the pupils a veritable at- 
tract ion and requires the steady concentration of their attention ; a 
wholesome emulation keeps up activity and assures progress. Ir. is 
impelled not by desire for a reward but only by the desire to do the 
best possible ; by the satisfaction of performing a duty which is not 
burdensome because it is proportioned to the strength of each. The 
scholars have not all the same article to make. In the first place 
because they do not all begin at the same time, and then because cer- 
tain pupils advance more rapidly than others on account of their 
greater attention or skill. 

« The exercises having been finished the boy presents his work to the 
director, who examines it attentively and judges whether it is worthy 
to be accepted or not. If it is well executed the director compliments 
the pupil who carries home the product of his work. The modest 
household of his parents will be enriched by a useful object the com- 
mercial value of which is very slight but which is highly appreciated 
because it was made by the boy himself. It is his own work ; no one 
has directly aided in it and he is proud to show it. If, on the other 
hand, the model is badly produced, and if the mistakes cannot be cor- 
rected, the director, after having required the pupil himself to note his 
faults, breaks it and has it made over again, for every one must do 
his work in the best possible way. It is not the quantity of articles 
which is considered important but their quality in point of correct 
execution. 

Mr. Abrahamson founded, in 1874, a primary school for girls. Its 
object was to give to youDg girls, from ten to sixteen years, at the 
same lime with ordinary instruction, a sufficient skill in domestic 
labors belonging to females — such as spinning, weaving, sewing by 
hand and on the machine, housekeeping, preparation of foods, etc. — 
in a word, the pupils there are initiated into all the occupations which 
will be of constant use for the future mofher of a family. 

In 1884 he introduced into this school a course of working in wood, 
to the extent of two and a half hours a week. 

The instruction continues ten months and a half each year, with 
eight hours of study and of work every day. 

The pupils are divided into two divisions. In the higher class, 

twenty-four hours a week are devoted to ordinary studies, and ten to 

manual labors. In the lower class, twenty-one hours a week are given 

to lessons, and fifteen to domestic works. 
********** 

The normal school of manual work (Slojdlarareseminarium == a 
seminary for teachers of manual training. Slodj is an expression 
purely Swedish, which it is impossible to translate exactly into any 
other language, but which designates, in general, the manual labor 
proper to schools and domestic work) is an institution unique of its 
kind. A complete study of its history, its organization, its experi- 



Industrial Education Commission. 545 

men^s, the principles it has applied, its methods and its programme, 
will be, I believe, fruitful in suggestions of every kind upon the iui- 
portant question of primary instruction in manual labor. "^ * 

The normal school was established in June, 1875, and five years 
later it was enlarged and installed in the building which it now 
occupies. * * * 

The main floor contains on the right two shops, one containing nine- 
teen benches, the other twelve, a lathe, a grindstone, carpenters' 
tools, turning tools and tools for wood-cutting hang upon the wall in 
careful order. The left wing is occupied by two class rooms, in which 
the ordinary instruction is given to the pupils of the primary school. 
The teachers who follow the courses gather there to listen to lessons 
in pedagogics, given by Mr. Otto Salomon, and to discuss questions 
relating to primary instruction in manual work. The desks of this 
room are in one place, and of a movable pattern — to be raised or 
lowered, according to the height of the pupils; an arrangement which 
seems to us an ingenious solution of this important question of school 
desks. 

Beautiful geographical charts, cards representing animals and plants 
(Deyrolles' collection) ornament the walls. In glass cases are exposed 
collections of minerals and rocks, geometrical models and other objects 
serving to give an insight into the subjects taught. Upon the wall 
facing the pupils are engravings representing the kings of Sweden and 
some great teachers; in a word, these class rooms have a cheerful 
aspect The laws of hygiene have been scrupulously observed in their 
construction, and the teaching apparatus proves that the instruction 
which is given there is according to the best modern conception of 
popular schools. The class rooms are connected with the shops by a 
large corridor, in«which pupils assemble at certain hours for lessons in 
singing, accompanied with instrumental music. The two wings of the 
building are separated by a grand hall, the museum, which contains 
models, serving for instruction in manual training, as well as a very 
large collection of objects of every kind, furniture, tools, toys, etc., 
which have served as models during the period of experiment. 

The method of Naas is not, in fact, the product of pure theory; it is 
the iruit of a long and serious practical study. The investigations to 
which Mr. Salomon and his colleague, Mr. Johanson, devoted them- 
selves in order to arrive at the present system of instruction (Slojd) 
were pursued during many years, with rare perseverance, and were 
crowned with success. * * * ^ * * 

During the first years, from 1875 to 1880, the aim of the normal 
school at Naas was to instruct and to train men capable of teaching 
manual work in the schools, either independent or annexed to the 
primary school. 

35 Ed. Com. 



546 Keport of the 

The conditions of admission were as follows : To be at least eigh- 
teen years of age ; to have a sufficient physical strength to perform the 
duties for which the school prepared; to have already some practice 
in manual work, and to know the subjects required in Sweden at the 
examination for leaving the primary schools. 

The instruction comprised two parts; one theoretical or general, 
the other practical. In the first was arithmetic, geometry, phvsics, 
mechanics, linear drawing, pedagogy, the science of methods ; in the 
other the practice of trades, such as the execution of works designed 
to teach a knowledge of the various tools of the carpenter, the turner, 
the wood engraver, the blacksmith ; familiarization with the handling 
of these tools ; the making and repairing of the simplest tools and 
utensils of an ordinary household ; the making of shafts and wheels 
for carts and wagons; working with large tools, and working with the 
file. 

The course continued one year at the rate of fifty-four hours a week, 
of which thirty-six were employed in manual work, and eighteen in 
the scientific studies. 

Those who followed this course were practiced in giving special in- 
struction in manual labor by teaching pupils every day in the primary 
school, which forms the school of application (model school), and the 
examination for graduation included three tests — one upon theoretical 
branches, one in linear drawing and the work of the shop, the third a 
teaching test in the school of application. A diploma was given to 
the candidates who successfully passed the examination. 

In 1880 this organization was modified ; the theoretical courses 
were suppressed; the instruction was concentrated in the exclusive 
study of manual training. Since that time the school no longer 
trains special professors, unless in exceptional cases. It receives by 
preference primary teachers holding a diploma, who wish to acquire a 
practical knowledge necessary to teach the Slojd in the schools where 
they are employed. This change is the consequence of the purely 
pedagogical character of the method of Naas. 

Manual labor, not being considered as a direct preparation for spe- 
cific trades, but as an educational agency, it does not form a special 
branch of the general programme, and the teacher gives lessons in 
that to his pupils as he teaches them to read, to write, to cipher, etc. 
Mr. Salomon thinks that the true mission of the primary school is the 
systematic cultivation of the faculties; that the diiferent branches of 
instruction should be considered as the means projjer to attain this 
end. No one branch, then, can tend to specialization ; all must be 
grouped in a harmonious whole, and the fundamental condition for 
attaining this result is to require the same teacher to give the pupils 
of the same class instruction in the whole programme. 

According to this conception there can be no question of applying 
to the primary school the principle of division of labor, since, in spite 



Industrial Educaiion Commission. 547 

of the apparent diversity of subjects which are taught, primar^^ edu- 
cation forms a single indivisible whole. The system of special teach- 
ers is in contradiction with the aim of the primary school. 

The consequence of this system is the necessity of preparing teach 
ers to give instruction in manual training. It is this role that is as- 
signed to the normal schoolof Naas. It is open to all teachers who 
desire to introduce this instruction into their schools. The courses and 
the lodging are gratuitous. The teachers take their meals in a restau- 
rant attached to the school at the rate of one crown (about twenty- 
eight cents) a day. In general the Swedish teachers who follow the 
courses receive, for their traveling expenses, assistance from " Eco- 
nomic Societies," which are associations created to encourage all 
works having in view the moral and material well-being of the people. 

Within a few years, this subject has made important pi ogress in 
Sweden. There are to-day (1885), about seven hundred schools in 
which the Slojd is taught. The teachers do not everywhere give these 
courses, their necessary ^preparation being defective; but the general 
tendency is towards this result. Although the official programme of 
the normal schools and the primary schools does not yet prescribe in- 
struction in manual training, the Swedish government is interesting 
itself in the subject, and many of the teachers of the country are 
moving voluntarily to introduce this instruction into their schools. 

Since 1878 many teachers have informed themselves respecting the 
method of Naas. The temporary normal course continues six weeks, 
and the review course in th^ following year five weeks. In 
general these two courses are sufficient to exercise the teachers in 
the correct making of the hundred models of the series, if they con- 
tinue to perfect themselves in the handling of tools during the year 
which intervenes between the two courses. 

As in Sweden the vacations do not take place at the same time for 
all the schools, many temporary courses are carried on at Naas each 
year. 

The following table will give an idea of the activity displayed in 
this institution and of the progress which the idea is making in Sweden. 

In 1878, fourteen teachers were prepared for instruction in the 
Slojd. 

In 187^, nine teachers were prepared for instruction in the Siojd. 

In 1880, thirteen teachers were prepared. 

In 1881, eighteen teachers. 

In 1882, one hundred and two (in six temporary courses). 

In 1883, one hundred and fourteen (in six temporary courses). 

In 1884, one hundred and thirteen (in five temporary courses). 

To these numbers there should be added two teachers who followed 
the course onh^ in part, and more than sixty professors, engaged in 
teaching manual training in schools whose regular teachers cannot 
give this course on account of their age or for some other reason. 



548 Report of the 

.Not all these teachers fe^long to the Swedish nationality. At Naas 
the narrow spirit of exclusivism is unknown. The object there is to 
promote general progress. Thus, in 1884, among the one hundred and 
twenty-six persons who followed the course, there were one hundred 
and seven Swedes, two Norwegians, four Finlanders (three of whom 
were females), one Dane, two Germans, five Auslrians, two Russians, 
two English ladies, one Hollander. Among these were one hundred 
and eight primary teachers, the director of a school of deaf mutes, 
chree female teachers, two school directresses, three school directors, 
two professors of secondary schools, an inspector of primary schools, 
and an inspector of Slojd. 

When one sees that a private school has been able in so few years 
to give a vigorous impulse to the primary teaching of manual training, 
it may be hoped that governments solicitous for the development of 
popular instruction, will not hesitate to put forth energetic efforts in 
order to give a practical and general solution to this question. 

We followed, with eighteen Swedish teachers and one Finnish 
teacher, the temporary normal course which was given from the 15th 
of August to the 21st of September, 1883. These teachers were 
classed in two divisions, one of which included those who were fol- 
lowing the review course. The labor in the shop was carried on six 
hours every day, under the direction of Mr. Salomon. Mr. Johanson 
and others gave the courses. The history of pedagogy and the meth- 
odology of manual training were taught by Mr. Salomon, who besides 
presided at the conferences, in which the teachers freely discussed 
the system set forth, their doubts, their criticisms, etc. 

These discussions were recorded by one of the teachers. 

Each morning and evening, immediately before and after the work, 

the teachers gathered to recite a prayer and chant psalms, each one 

being free to take part in this religious exercise or not. 

******** 

The 2ist of September, 1883, the course was terminated by a formal 
session. In the two shops the models made by the teachers were ar- 
ranged on the benches ; the walls were hung with the banners of the 
different provinces of Sweden ; outside, the Swedish, Finnish and 
Belgian standards floated aloft. 
After the prayer and psalms Mr. Salomon spoke as follows : 
''Gentlemen: It is a gratifying spectacle to see men of countries 
remote from one another, belonging to different peoples, gathered in 
this little corner of the world to labor in a common work. In this 
view my heart beats with joy and confidence, for I find here a con- 
vincing proof that there are other interests than those which actuate 
the individual, which unite families, or which constitute the vital 
forces of nations. It is a proof that there exist interests as wide as 
humanity, and surely the work of education is one of these interests. 
If one regards general and constant progress as a necessity of nature, 



Industrial Education Commission. 549 

founded on the will of God, and if one remembers that the future be- 
longs to childhood, it must also be admitted that the impression of 
one generation upon the following — which is education — is a matter 
of universal importance. Upon this grand field of labor there can be 
no question about conditions of nationality. We should, on the con- 
trary, each one for himself, direct our forces toward the common end : 
The preparation of youth for life upon earth first, and also for the 
future life, where social inequalities are no longer of any account. 

"It is, without doubt, the constantly increasing tendency in the 
teaching body towards a more rational education, which has brought 
teachers together here from so many countries. 

''More and more the conviction everywhere prevails that the school 
sins grievously against the principles of a rational education, to the 
great prejudice of our children. How general this has become is 
shown by the introduction of manual training in the schools — a sys- 
tem which aims to train the skill and dexterity of the hand, in the 
same measure as the purely intellectual faculties. The efforts made 
in this direction are, so to speak, a complete protest against this edu- 
cation which takes a false direction, and which results unquestionably 
in an instruction purely theoretical, such as is, unfortunately, still too 
generally given. 

'' Far be from me the suggestion that this protest has been raised in 
our little country alone, and that we have been the first to recognize 
the necessitv of the reform which now engages us, 

" Does not history teach us that the people being ripe for any re- 
form of which the need is felt, this suddenly appears, and most fre- 
quently at the same time in many countries ? Surely, then, it is not 
befitting either an individual or a people to claim the privilege of 
having been first to possess that which is the common property of 
humanity. 

"This truth being granted in respect to things relatively common, 
must all the more be admitted in respect to an extremely important 
idea like the one we are now considering, the extent of which cannot 
yet be measured, or the consequences fully understood. I desire, as 
far as my knowledge and my experience permit, to make you under- 
stand that the idea of employing manual training as a means of edu- 
cation is not a novelty and innovation; but that, on the contrary, its 
roots run back to the remotest time. In fact, we have seen that the 
authors of modern pedagogy have appreciated the highly educative 
value of this process. It is enough to say that in occupying ourselves 
seriously with manual training we are not giving our time and our 
strength to the service of a vain caprice or a fashionable notion." 
******** 

In 1846 a Swedish association was established for the purpose of 
extending the Slojd. About the same time the well-known writer, 
Mr. Hedlund, published a number of articles, in which he eloquently 



650- Eeport of the 

set forth the importance of the subject. It was not until 1872 that 
the Swedish government ^:ive attention to this interesting method of 
instruction. The Chamber of Deputies then voted an annual appro- 
priation of 2.500 crowns (about $700,000), which was successively 
raised to 10,000 crowns, and then to 20,000, for the purpose of encour- 
aging the communes and the teachers who introduced instruction in 
manual training into the public schools. 

In 1875 the Royal Academy charged the engineer, Albert Ram- 
strom, with the duty of organizing temporary courses of Slojd. 

In six years 147 courses were given to 1,678 persons, of whom 456 
were primary teachers, and 101 special professors. 

In 1877 the Chamber of Deputies voted a sum of 15,000 crowns for 
the support of public schools in which manual training was taught. 

The teacher who introduced this branch into his course of instruc- 
tion received an annual appropriation of seventy five crowns (about 
$20). 

The first efi'orts were not very fortunate. Almost everywhere at- 
tention was given to wood-carving, an exercise of slight educational 
value, and a certain degree of opposition was manifested towards the 
teaching of Slojd. Happily, a more rational course was followed by 
other institutions, in which attention was given to more serious work. 

The schools of Naas, Upsal, Clsestrop, gave a better example, and 
exercised a happy influence in the country. 

Some figures will show with what rapidity the teaching of Slojd has 
advanced in Sweden. In 1876 only eighty schools included this 
branch in their programme ; in 1877 there were one hundred, in 1879 
about two hundred, in 1883 about six hundred, and in 1884 more than 
seven hundred. This constant progress is due in great part to 
a few men of ability, who have devoted themselves entirely to this 
cause. The sculptor, Chas. Ahlborn, gave, from 1870 to 1875, about 
two hundred '' conferences '- in different parts of Sweden. He explained 
the subject to more than 60,000 hearers. Count Erick Sparre also 
made energetic efforts to encourage the movement. -st * * 

At the outset, the economic conception was generally adopted. 
Instruction in manual training was everywhere regarded as a means of 
giving the child of the people a way to earn his bread. But, little 
by little, the subject assumed its true aspect. It was recognized that 
manual training has a far more elevated purpose — far more useful, 
even in the philosophical acceptation of that word. It was regarded as 
a pedagogical process, adapted to secure more completely the physical, 
moral and intellectual development of the child. Thus was realized 
in Sweden the dream of those illustrious educators, Comenius, Rous- 
seau, Pestalozzi and Froebel, of seeing in schools of primary instruc- 
tion manual training closely joined with any subjects purely theoreti- 
cal, in order to secure the integral training of all the faculties and all 
the aptitudes which constitute the complete man. 



Industrial Education Commission. 551 

3. The Method Pursued at Naas. 

If the name of method is given to a well considered and systematic 
course, leading to a well determined end, the manual training of the 
school of Naas constitutes a veritable method, and it has an unques- 
tionable character of originality Nothing in this system is left to 
chance. It is the result of experiments prosecuted for many years 
with the constant desire of being able to give a practi *al and effective 
form to primary instruction in manual training. 

Mr. Otto Salomon has departed from the modern conception of the 
popular school and sought constantly to remain faithful to the funda- 
mental principles of the science of education, respecting which there 
has been hardly any difference among the .great teachers since Mon- 
taigne, Comenius, Eousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel. We now give 
a resume of our conferences with him respecting the principal ques- 
tions raised regarding the organization of instruction in manual train- 
ing in the primary school. 

(a) The Necessity and Aim of Instruction in Manual Training in 

the PuMic Schools. 

We know by experience that the child has a natural tendency to 
activity. It shows itself from the time when he begins to be able to 
use his members. He delights himself by directing his feeble efforts 
to everything that he can seize upon. He takes the objects nearest to 
him, handles them, throws them, breaks them ; not in a spirit of destruc- 
tiveness but from the need he has of doing something, and from the 
instinct of curiosity which is the starting point of all later intellectual 
acquisitions. 

The programmes of primary instruction take too little account of 
this fact. The lessons are almost all theoretical; they address the 
intellect only; the hand, which is an admirable instrument designed 
to give a concrete form to the thought, is not given a special training 
in primary schools. Writing and drawing are the only branches which 
call in its aid, but they can develop it only very incompletely; they 
do not give it a general facility which finds application in the exercise 
of all professions, all arts, and in many circumstances which are pre- 
sented by practical life. Gymnastics, properly so called, are of 
scarcely more account in this respect. They strengthen the muscles 
but they do not train the technical aptitude of the hand. 

The education of the child is incomplete if it has only taught him 
to think, if it only furnishes him with theoretical ideas. It must 
develop all his faculties, including manual skill. The child should 
not receive a preparation exclusively literary and scientific ; he should 
also be prepared for the arts, the trades, the industries — that is to say 
should be initiated to all the forms of human activity. General man- 
ual skill can only be developed by exercises which demand the 



552 Report of the 

methodical handling of numerous tools. The teaching of special 
trades in the primary school is out of the question. That would be to 
turn aside the school from its true aim, which is the intregal and har- 
monious cultivation of the faculties. In the same way as instruction 
in arithmetic, geometrical matters, drawing, writing, etc., does not 
propose to prepare pupils for the professions of the engineer, the math- 
ematician, the public officer, the designer, etc., so the primary instruc- 
tion in manual training does not design to form workmen — carpenters, 
turners, blacksmiths, etc. 

It will be objected that the pupils m the primary school have al- 
ready enough to do. This is true as respects intellectual work; but it 
is certain that they are not required to perform any serious manual 
exercise. Manual work differs wholl5% moreover, from intellectual 
work. The latter has very great value, but the child does not appre- 
ciate its necessity. He hardly studies at all for the love of study, or 
because he perceives the importance of the end to be attained; this 
end escapes his notice. He learns because he is obliged to learn. 
Instruction in manual work is altogether different; it pleases the child 
because he finds in it food for the imperative need of activity which 
exists in him; he sees the results of his efforts and can appreciate 
them. Thus, when a young boy learns to conjugate a verb, or to re- 
solve a problem, he does not appreciate, from his point of view, the 
utility of the efforts which he is required to make; but if he makes a 
bench, a box, etc., he sees clearly the end to be reached, he under- 
stands and appreciates for himself by comparison with the model, 
whether his work is well or ill done. It is observed also that pupils 
are much better pleased with the exercises of the shop than with those 
of the class. For these reasons we may affirm that manual occupa- 
tions have more educational value than purely intellectual work; 
they call forth to a high degree the taste and the love for work in 
general. 

They have another consequence which it is important to note; they 
show constantly to the pupils that work upon material has a great 
value of its own ; they inspire respect for it, and thus remove the too 
general dislike for manual labor which appears everywhere among 
the children of the people. The pedagogical organization of instruc- 
tion in manual work in the primary schools removes one of the causes 
of the desertion of trades by the children of workmen and peasants. 
It lessens considerably the time of apprenticeship to a trade. The 
boy who, for several years, has been exercised in educational manual 
work has an unquestionable superiority in acquiring rapidly all the 
practical details and secrets of any occupation whatever. But manual 
work is necessary also for all pupils, even for those who do not in- 
tend to follow trades. Not to develop skill of the hand is to deprive 
children of an aptitude which is of great importance in practical life, 
and which is a source of healthful diversions ; it is to act with as little 



Industrial Education Commission. 553 

discrimination as if one should not cultivate their memory or any 
other intellectual faculty. 

The child who is trained in the labors of the shop acquires the spirit 
of order, of correctness; his desire, as experience proves, is to make 
his article the best possible, and this desire increases with the increase 
of skill. By constantly comparing his work with the model which he 
has to imitate he makes note of progress, sees the errors which he 
commits and corrects them. He feels that without order it is impos- 
sible for him to arrive at correct execution. The habit which he ac- 
quires in th^ shop, of working with order and correctness, reacts upon 
all his other school work. 

Every teacher knows that attention is the essential condition of 
effective study. The child who is distracted learns nothing. Without 
attention there are neither ideas, nor reflection, nor mental develop- 
ment. A routine work produces inattention, which thus becomes 
habitual. But there are trades which demand a constant concentra- 
tion of intelligence upon the work to be executed and which train 
it to a habit of attention. Work upon material gives, moreover, 
clearer perceptions of form, of dimensions; it trains insight in the 
highest degree. Manual occupations well directed sharpen the sense 
of sight; develop the faculties of attention, of insight, of reflection 
and exercise the spirit of combination. When the choice of models 
to be executed has been made with discrimination, manual exercises 
awaken also the esthetic sentiment and prevent it from becoming 
perverted. They learn, in fact, to give to raw material an irreproach- 
able form, adapted to the destination of the object fashioned. 

In ordinary lessons children remain sitting before their desk during 
long hours. This position is bad ; it enfeebles and enervates the body, 
and reacts in the same way upon the mind. School gymnastics are 
maintained for the very purpose of reestablishing the equilibrium in 
the organization, through increasing functional energy and conse- 
quently moral energy. Manual occupations exercise an analogous 
influence if they are chosen among those which require the pupil to 
hold himself erect, and to exert himself vigorously. 

We have more than once heard the wish expressed in Sweden that 
manual labor might be introduced into the secondary and upper 
schools in order to counteract the consequences of the difficult studies 
of the young people. [In some secondary and upper schools in Sweden 
manual training has already been introduced.] It is frightful to 
dwell upon the disastrous consequences produced by the regime to 
which more students are subjected who intend to enter the liberal pro- 
fessions. During the first twenty years of their life they exhaust their 
forces by a very intense intellectual labor. '^ The result of exclusive 
special studies has been, and will be more and more," says Mr. H. 
Leneveux, '^ a tendency to menial alienation, to enfeeblement and to 
nervous maladies." The same author indicates manual labor as an 



554 Report of the 

excellent means of securing the regular play of the organs, among 
those persons who do not belong to the class of workers in material. 

Such are the principal general considerations which characterize 
manual labor in a pedagogical point of view. We resume, then, by 
saying that it has for its aim : 

1. To cause the child to acquire a general skill of hand. 

2. To awaken in him the taste and the love of labor. 

3. To call forth spontaneity — the initiative. 

4. To give him experience of the fact that order and correctness in 
labor are necessary elements of progress. 

5. To develop the faculties of attention and perception. 

6. To render the child earnest and persevering. 

7. To inspire the esthetic sentiment without allowing it to become 
vague or exaggerated. 

8. To neutralize the injurious effects produced upon the system by 
intellectual studies, and by the sitting position which the child must 
maintain during the ordinary lessons. 

(b) The Choice of Manual OcGupations. 

The choice of manual exercises to be introduced into the primary 
school for the purpose of attaining, as completely as possible, the 
pedagogical end which we have set forth, is not a matter of indiffer- 
ence. It is necessary, in fact, to take account of numerous conditions 
which affect the question ; conditions which are not found combined 
in most trades. Rousseau, in ^VEmile," gives emphasis on this point 
to the considerations which we are about to name, because the most 
of them tend to the object to be reached. 

First. He rejects at the outset '• every sedentary and indoor occu- 
pation, which effeminates and weakens the body." 

The professions of this kind are neither agreeable nor fitting for 
children. ^ * * ^ * ^ We should then omit at 
the outset trades like that of the tailor, which cannot develop the gen- 
eral energy of the body. 

Second. " I forbid to my pupil unhealthful trades." 

Third. "It is necessary, also, to make account of cleanliness. I 
shall not make of your son a horse-shoer, an iron- worker, a blacks- 
smith; I should not like to see him at the forge in the form of a 
Cyclops; moreover, I shall not make him a mason, still less a shoe- 
maker. It is necessary that all trades be carried on, but whoever is 
at liberty to make a choice, should have regard to cleanliness, for that 
is not a matter of opinion ; on this point the feeling decides for us." 

Almost all children have already too great a propensity to neglect 
the cares of cleanliness, and even to begrime themselves deliberately. 
Education should tend constantly to overcome this tendency; for 
cleanliness is not only necessary in the hygienic point of view, it is 
almost a virtue; it is closely connected with morality. When one 



Industrial Education Commission. 555 

sees children slovenly, neither washed nor combed, their clothing 
soiled and ragged, one may be certain that in the family and in the 
school the spirit of order does not exist; that neglect of duties is there 
the rule. 

Fourth. ''Finally, I should not like those stupid occupations, the 
laborers in which, listlessly and almost automatically, use only their 
hands at the same round of work — the weavers, the stocking makers, 
the stone-cutters. Why should a man of sense engage in these trades ? 
He is one machine that works another !" 

Trades of this nature are not appropriate to the primary school- 
They train manual skill but little, and clog the intelligence instead of 
awakening it We should exclude all occupations which demand only 
restricted and, as ir were, automatic movements, and especially those 
in which the work is done by a machine, the duty of the workman 
being simply to put the raw material in place, and then wait until it 
is transformed. These occupations have no educational value; they 
do not keep the attention and the reflection awake ; they bring no 
satisfaction to the child, whom they reduce simply to the watcher of 
a machine. 

Fifth. Division of labor, { ushed to the extreme in modern indus- 
try, has created a crowd of occupations, in which the workman is no 
longer a true artisan, transforming raw material into works complete 
in themselves, and bearing the stamp of his own individuality. The 
principle of the division of labor is certainly excellent in the econo- 
mic point of view, since it permits the production of abundance of 
useful objects at a cheap rate, but it is an error to suppose that an ex- 
treme division of labor is favorable to the intellectual development 
of the workman because it leaves him free to think of something else 
while his hands are executing very pimple movements — always the 
same — and requiring scarcely any reflection. In reality, routine work 
produces stupidity ; it transforms the workman into a veritable ma- 
chine, unless he is exceptionally gifted. 

The child, as we have already said, cannot find satisfaction except 
in works the object of which clearly appears to him. To require 
him to make an article which is to pass through the hands of 
many other pupils before being completed, is surely to awaken in him 
a disgust for labor. Under such conditions the responsibility is di- 
vided. What cares the pupil whether the piece upon which he is 
working is correctly executed? It is going to be taken by another, 
who will make of it what he wishes; as for him, he finishes his task 
well or ill. What direct interest has he in doing the best possible ? 
If the completed object is defective, he is not concerned — it is not his 
work. In the school it is necessary to require the same pupil to give 
to the raw material a definitive form without the cooperation of any 
other person^ that he may he able to claim the work as Ms own^ and 
one for which he holds the entire responsihilty. 



556 Report of the 

The occupation to be chosen, then, should be one which does not 
demand division of labor, and this condition considerably limits the 
choice. 

Sixth. It is sufficient merely to note the necessity of given to chil- 
dren only such occupations as are proportioned to their physical 
strength. If too violent efforts are required — too fatiguing — they 
exhaust and repel ; but, if they are too easily executed, if they do 
not require a sustained attention and do not present increasing diffi- 
culties of execution, they do not sufficiently exercise the faculties, or 
increase the physical vigor, or cultivate a habit of preserverance. 

Seventh. On the other hand, the exercises should constitute a pro- 
gressive series, gradually increasing the difficulties of execution, 
demanding greater and greater energy and attention, so that each 
work may be a little more difficult than that which has preceded, and 
may prepare for that which is to follow. This is the necessary condi- 
tion for supporting emulation, exciting diligence and perseverance, 
and assuring the constant progress of the pupil. 

Eighth. The nature of the objects to be made by the pupils is a 
very important question. It touches considerations of a high order, 
which do not appear at first sight, and in respect to which we must 
speak more fully. 

At Naas all work de luxe, work of fancy and diversion, is prohib- 
ited. The method requires the making of useful objects, which can 
be employed in the family of the children attending the school. Their 
nature is determined by the social position of the parents of the pu- 
pils. These belong generally to the agricultural or industrial classes, 
like the immense majority of those who in all countries attend the 
public school. 

The term " luxe " is relative. Many an object considered as useful 
in the house of a rich townsman, would be out of place in the lowly 
home of a workman or ol a peasant. For these last a luxury is every- 
thing which is not directly usable in the household; and we have 
in view here the education of the children of the most numerous 
social class, that which lives by manual labor. It is of the highest 
importance not to cultivate in them a taste for useless trifles. 
The time which they spend at school is too short, the practical neces- 
sities of life too imperious, to permit the expenditure of effort in teach- 
ing them to construct articles purely ornamental. This question has 
moreover, a moral bearing which should fix attention. Experience 
has proved that children who are taught at the outset to make articles 
of luxury, experience, in consequence, a great repugnance for labors 
which are merely indispensable or useful ; thus young girls who have 
commenced by making embroidery, or other works of this kind, think 
they lower themselves by engaging in the cares of the household, the 
repair of clothing, the making of ordinary garments, all things which 
they consider common and unworthy of themselves. In the same way 



Industkial Education Commission. 557 

most of the boys who are taught to make purely ornamental articles, 
such as little frames, little boxes, and so many other trifles of doubtful 
taste, frjm cut wood or card-board, shows nothing but disdain for more 
serious works. Owing to their ignorance, false notions are instilled 
into them concerning the aim and the dignity of labor ; they come to 
distinguish common labors (which they look upon as unworthy of 
themselves) and honorable labors, when, on the other hand, they 
should be impressed as early as possible with the profound truth that 
all useful labor is honorable to him who performs it. 

We insist upon the importance of this principle because in many 
civilized countries many children of workmen and of peasants show a 
strong tendency to despise manual labor ; aspire to abandon the con- 
dition of their parents and to embrace occupations which they con- 
sider far superior, such as those of employes in commercial houses or 
in public offices. 

By organizing a serious teaching of manual work in the public 
schools, and by excluding severely from the series of occupations 
those which have no other aim than the gratification of taste or luxury, 
these children will be inspired with a respect and taste for the useful 
occupations which their parents followed. We think that the prin- 
ciple above expressed should be applied even in schools attended by 
children of well to-do families. They have only too much occasion, 
in the condition in which they live, to employ themselves with trifling 
things, and to attach to them an importance which they do not right- 
fully merit. By requiring them to perform labors really useful, we 
should counteract, to some extent, the false effects of a domestic edu- 
cation often badly directed. 

The question has been raised whether it is desirable to teach chil- 
dren to make toys. This kind of work has been thrown aside for vari- 
ous reasons : 

(1.) The instruction in Slojd is given to children from ten to fifteen 
years of age. Sons of peasants or of workingmen, they are about 
to enter upon life, and it is important to prepare them for it ; the 
making of useless and trifling things like toys, would be in con- 
tradiction to this aim. 

(2.) Toys at this age produce only a brief pleasure. 

(3.) Children experience no more pleasure in making toys than in 
making objects which they carry home, and which are utilized in the 
household. 

(4.) Parents do not esteem the labor which produces only a toy, 
while they do appreciate useful objects. When the child brings from 
school an object of this kind, they show their satisfaction, praise and 
encourage the little workmen. The article is immediately utilized in 
the family, and serves a long time with a pleasure always new. A 
toy does not produce this general satisfaction, which is, for the child, 
a strong stimulus. 



558 Report of the 

At the opening of the primary school at Naas the children were re- 
quired to make purely ornamental articles and toys. The parents 
showed themselves altogether unfavorable to this kind of work. 
They said that their children were required to lose precious time. It 
became necessary to pay them forty ores a day (about eleven cents) 
to induce them to send their children to the Slojd school. Aiter this 
all objects without practical utility were excluded, and since that time 
parents take pleasure in seeing their children follow the course of 
manual work. At the congress of teachers in 1883 this topic was a 
subject of lively discussion, but the view of Mr. Salomon respecting 
the nature of the objects to be made in the Slojd, was almost unani- 
mously approved by the members present. 

It may be affirmed that the Slojd has profoundly rooted itself in 
the soil of Sweden, only because of its character of immediate utility, 
which has caused it to be appreciated by the people, and which has, 
moreover, strictly conformed to the principles of a serious education. 
Here, stiil, Eousseau was right in saying, ^' I wish absolutely that 
Emil learn a trade. Do you say, ' at least an honorable trade ? ' What 
does this word mean? Is not every trade honorable which is useful 
to the public'^ I do not wish that he be an embroiderer, or a gilder, 
or a vainisher, like Lockers gentleman ; I would rather have him pave 
the highway than make flowers on porcelain. Thus, coming back 
to the first word, let us take an honorable trade ; but let us remember 
always that there is nothing honorable without usefulness." 

Ninth. Manual labor should regard the making of objects which 
develop the esthetic sentinment by their purity of form. This propo- 
sition is not opposed to the prohibition of objects of luxury and mere 
ornament. Useful objects, employed in the household, are susceptible 
of a certain touch of good taste when they are made with exactness, 
correctness and neatness. True beauty is not found in superfluous 
ornament ; it has been rightly said that the beautiful is the splendor 
of the true. 

The searching for ornament exclusively, is characteristic of art in 
decline; it may be observed in a great number of works are called 
artistic in our time — monuments, lurniture, etc. It is necessary to 
guard ag<dust this with care in primary instruction in general, and 
particuiarly )n manual training. True beauty resides in harmony and 
symnutry, which require that every article be perfectly adapted toils 
use, 0(*cu!)y exactly the necessary space, without liaving too mu'-h or 
too little of anything — all the pans well balanced and blending in 
unity. Every usei'ul object, however common it may be, can be made 
crudely or tastefully. Thus in the composition of the series ol models, 
useful iie^s will be kept in view with reference to the social rank oc- 
cupied by the pupil ; but the most elegant possible form should always 
be given to ariicles. In this way the Slojd will have a truly educative 
influence ; not only will it develop skill of the hand, accuracy of the 



Industrial Education Commission. 



559 



eye, but it will also satisfy the sentiment of the beautiful, while pre- 
venting it from going astray or predominating exclusively. 

Such are the principles which guided Mr. Salomon in the choice of 
occupations to introduce into the primary school. 

We sum them up by saying that the manual occupations of the 
primar}^ school should answer the following conditions : 

.1. They should exercise manual skill as completely as possible; 

2. Should concentrate attention and keep the intelligence alert ; 

3. Should accustom to work with order, correctness and neatness; 

4. Should require only the making of objects of general utility ; 

5. Should develop the esthetic sentiment without exaggerating or 
misdirecting it; 

6. Should include the making of complete objects, executed without 
involving the division of labor; 

7. Should be proportioned to the physical strength of the children; 

8. Should be hygienic, develop the general vigor, and be executed, 
as far as possible, in a standing position ; 

9. Should present a progressive series — that is to say, graduated 
with reference to difficulty of execution. 

In primary schools of manual training, the choice of occupations has 
been confined, m general, to the following : 

1. Iron working: forging, lockmaking. 

2. Working in straw and willow : basketmaking. 

3. Working in paper and card-board : cartonnage^ book-binding. 

4. AVood-working : turning, sculpture, carpentry, wooden-ware. 
The following table indicates, briefly, for each occupation, which 

of the above-named conditions they satisfy : 





* 


^ 


i 
o 








A 


o 


■3 





























a 


<u 


u 




>. 


4J 


o 


■c 










c 


o 










q; 








fa 






. 


— 


^ 




« . 


fcc 


6 






c • 


Li 


2 


s 


E 


:2 


^S 


a. 






if 


S so 




1 

01 




o 


"3 c 


2 2 
^ 


1.1 

4) > 


i 




^ 


< 


o 


O 


O 


Q 


7\ 


O 


" 


-' 


Iron-working, , . . 


No, 


+ 


-4- 


No, 


Limited, 


Slight, 


No, 


Yes, 


No, 


9 


Basket-work, . . , 


Mo, 


Yes. 


Yes, 


Yes. 


Yfs, 


Yes. . . 


\o , 


>0, 


Incomplete, 


Yes, 


Binding 


No, 


Y s, 


Yes. 


Yes, 


Limited, 


Yes, . . 


Yes, 


N.., 


No, 


Limited. 


Card- Hoard work, , 


No, 


Yes 


Yes, 


Yes. 


Limited, 


^ es, . . 


Yes, 


No, 


No, .... 


Yes. 


Wood-working, , . 


Yes, 


^es, 


Yes, 


Yes, 


Yes, . 


Yes. . 


Yes. 


Yes, 


Yes, .... 


Yes. 


Carving, ...... 


No, 


Yes, 


Yes, 


Yes, 


No. . 


Yes, . . 


Yes, 


No, 


Yes, 


Yes. 


Turning, 


No, 


Yes, 


Yes, 


Yes, 


Yes, . . . 


Yes, . . 


Yes, 


Yts, 


Yes, 


Yes. 



Observations on the above Table. 

1. Iron- working, forging, lockmaking. Work with the file and the 
hammer increases the vigor of the arm, but does not exercise the hand 
in many directions ; it benumbs it, rather. 

The apprenticeship is hard and long. The attention is not awak- 
ened except in one who already knows the trade quite well, but the 
beginner works without having this faculty appealed to. Work with 



560 Repokt of the 

the file is too mechanical ; the great hammer of the forge room is too 
heavy for the child to handle. The articles which pupils from ten to 
fourteen years can be required to make are rarely of immediate use 
in the household ; the forms are too little varied to exercise the sense 
of the beautiful. 

2. Basketmaking. The fingers alone are effectively exercised ; the 
trade is too poor in tools to allow very varied movements ; the chil- 
dren cannot make a complete basket from the beginning — the rim is 
too dificult to make ; the teacher then must take part in completing 
the work of the scholar. Large baskets require efforts which the child 
cannot make; the work is done in a sitting posture and does not de- 
velop the general vigor of the body. 

3. Book binding The general and direct utility of this trade with 
reference to the pupil and his family, is very limited. Children rarely 
succeed in binding a book well. At Gothembourg it has been observed 
that out of sixty six pupils, only two (three per cent.) obtained satis- 
factory results. A progressive series of exercises in binding is possi- 
ble, but it is very limited. 

4. Cartonnage. This work fulfils nearly all the conditions, but is 
little favorable to the development of physical vigor. It has few ap- 
plication in practical life. It secures flexibility of the fingers ; but 
not enough of the general facility of the hand. 

5. Wood-work is the most favorable. Rosseau understood this 
well. "Everything considered, the trade which I would prefer my 
pupil to have a taste for, is that of the carpenter. It is clean ; it is 
useful ; it can be exercised in the house ; it keeps the body sufficiently 
erect ; it requires in the workman skill and industry, and in the form 
of works which utility determines, elegance and taste are not ex- 
cluded." 

This the conclusion which has been reached at Naas. The Slojd 
there includes the making of one hundred household articles in wood. 
It is not carpentry, properly so-called ; it is, rather, a combination of 
carpentry, of wooden ware, of turning and of carving. The tools are 
forty- six in number. They comprise the ordinary instruments of car- 
pentry, with the addition of the knife {wahstrinque^ a curved knife 
which is employed to hollow out spoons), chisels and gouges for wood 
turning, 

The knife — unknown in carpentry properly so-called — is very much 
employed in the Slojd. The Swedish peasants make use of it to cut out a 
multitude of articles in wood. Their children have use of this instru- 
ment long before the age of admission to the shop of the school. Ad- 
vantage is taken of this preliminary acquisition ; the knife is often 
used in making the models of the series. 

Carving and turning occupy, however, only a limited place in this 
method. They do not sufficiently meet the required conditions. 
Carving is done in a sitting posture and only requires limited move- 



INDUSTRIAL Education Commission. 561 

ments of the arm and of the hand ; moreover, the time is too short to 
admit of the pupil occupying himself with many special exercises in 
carving. It is used, however, to some extent, in order to give to some 
articles an artistic touch by a very simple ornamentation. 

The work in turning is sufficiently hard, and is*iot without danger. 
Furthermore, it requires one-sided effort; it cannot, therefore, be al- 
lowed a preponderant place in work of the school. In short, wood- 
working, without carving or turning, is enough for the general end in 
view. 

In their totality, the exercises of the Slojd give occasion to handle 
all the tools which are employed in wood- working. To execute 
all the manipulations proper to this kind of work the pupils learn 
even to make various kinds of joinings. When they have made the 
one hundred models, one can say that the pedago^^ical aim of the 
Slojd is completely attained. They have acquired this general facility 
of the hand which finds so many applications in practical life ; and, 
whatever manual occupation they may choose they accomplish their 
apprenticeship in it much more rapidly, and they are fitted to follow 
with success, many trades. 

The articles made by the pupils are neither polished nor colored. 
Experience has shown that children from ten to fifteen years of age 
do not succeed, in general, in applying color well, or in polishing 
wood satisfactorily. Another and more important reason tends to 
favor this prohibition ; the child has a natural inclination to conceal 
the defects of his work, and he succeeds in this by the application of 
paint or of polish; he gives a passable exterior aspect to an article of 
doubtful merit; he thus habituates himself not to do his work con- 
scientiously, and comes to attach more importance to that which ap- 
pears than to that which is. If the objects must be executed in wood, 
without the use of means to give them a deceptive appearance, he 
applies all his care to reach the highest possible degree of perfection ; 
he sees at once the defects of his work, and corrects them. Further- 
more, it is not true that an object is more beautiful because it is 
painted or polished ; it should be beautiful by its correctness of form 
and of execution. 

It has been objected that a polished household article retains its 
neatness longer; but even in this point of view it is desirable to do 
without it ; it is necessary to accustom the children to keep the ob- 
jects which they have made in the neatest possible way. 

The pupils can only employ in their work a minimum of material ; 
this is a principle of economy which they are taught to apply in the 
shop; it is well that this habit be formed from an early age. This 
material is exclusively wood, because it his been shown that wood 
working is most suitable, and because it is a common material, easy 
to procure, and finally because, in general, it is necessary in construc- 
36 Ed. Com. 



562 Eeport of the 

tion to limit expenses as far as possible— to make simple objects, to 
use a single material. 

In the series of the hundred models at Naas only a few objects re- 
quire the employment of any other material, except nails, tacks, 
hinges, etc. These are, moreover, used in carpentry. The pupils 
learn to work different kinds of wood — soft and hard. One is quite 
tempted to think that soft wood lends itself always more readily to 
the action of tools ; practice proves, however, that in many cases it is 
easi3r to work hard wood. The use to which some articles are put 
requires hard wood, others soft. The employment of different kinds 
of wood allows a better gradation of difficulties. 

The great variety of articles of the series is justified by the neces- 
sity of always interesting the child in his work. We have already 
said many times, and the principle is so important that we do not 
hesitate to repeat it, the pupil who is required to make numerous spec- 
imens of any article whatever becomes listless, works without enjoy- 
ment, makes no progress. There are found in the series of Naas 
objects of the same kind — many spoons, many boxes, many boot- 
jacks, etc — but they are not immediately repeated ; they present dif- 
ferent degrees of difficulty of execution, and the pupil does not pass 
directly from one to the other. 

We insist also on the gradation in the labors of the Slojd. It is a 
general principle of pedagogics, that all instruction should proceed 
from the easy to the difficult; from the simple to the complex; this 
principle is respected in the series of Naas. It cannot appear clearly 
to the eyes of those who see the models arranged in the school 
museum ; this was also our first impression ; but we set ourselves to 
work, and in a few weeks we had made thirty of these models in the 
order of the series. We can thus declare with certain knowledge 
that ihe gradation really exists, and that it would be difficult to arrange 
it better. Let it be recalled, furthermore, that this series, as we have 
already said, is not the product of pure theory, which is almost always 
at fault in dealing with material needs; it is the fruit of long and 
patient experimenting. Mr. Salomon and his colleague, Mr. Johanson, 
tried many hundred models before they came to settle upon the series 
actually used. The gradation is obtained sometimes by the use of a 
new tool; sometimes by another method of handling a tool already 
familiar; sometimes by the nature of the wood, as soft or hard; by the 
greater dimensions of articles ; by different modes of joining; by the 
intervention of the lathe or carving tools. The scholar who has exe- 
cuted the first twenty-five numbers could not successfully undertake 
at once the fiftieth or S3ventieth number. The intermediate steps of 
the series are necessary ; there is no gap. The child who follows the 
regular course is never in the presence of insoluble difficulties; he can 
begin without hesitation, for the first works are simple and easy ; from 
the first lesson of the Slojd he sees his efforts end in a good result 



Industrial Education Commission. 563 

which encourages him and stimulates his ardor; he aspires constantly 
to execute more difficult models, and he acquires every day the con- 
viction more and more that he can succeed. 

In the description which we have given of a lesson in Slojd we have 
described the role of the teacher. It proceeds from this principle : 
that the development of the child should go onby itself spontaneously 
in order that he may learn to make use of his own powers, in order to 
overcome alone the difficulties and to resolve the problems which 
present themselves. It is the principle of self help, the application of 
which, in education, makes original and energetic men. The teacher 
could not reach this result by conveying merely his own knowledge 
to his pupils, by aiding them directl}^ in their work, by undertaking 
himself to make the difficult parts of the model, or by giving the last 
touch to the work of the pupil. In the system of Naas the child be- 
gins and finishes his work alone; and he is able to do it because the 
series is, as we have said, perfectly graded. The teacher shows how 
the tool is handled in such and such cases, but he does not make his 
demonstration on the article which the scholar is to execute. The 
article being finished, he submits it to a comparison with the model; 
he makes its want of correctness appear, which, if possible, is imme- 
diately corrected by the pupil ; if the work cannot be rectified, the 
teacher breaks it and throws it away, and it is done over again. 
When the child has correctly completed his model, he carries it home ; 
it is his own work for himself; no one has worked with him ; he can 
show it with pride, for he has applied his intelligence and his activity 
to a useful thing, which will be received with satisfaction by his 
parents. The modest homes of the peasants of Naas are thus con- 
stantly enriched by the v/ork of the children. Is it not an admirable 
organization, well calculated to render the school truly popular, to 
introduce into families habits of serious industry, and to inspire in 
children at once respect for the work of the hands, and love for the 
domestic fireside? This is the true foundation of happiness and of 
morality. 

We should however, remark a gap in this instruction. The pupils 
work only according to models in wood; at the same time they follow, 
at school, a course in linear drawing; why are they not exercised in 
applying directly their drawing to manual work? Surely, as it is or- 
ganized at Naas, the Slojd gives excellent results We have remarked 
it, and we repeat it, it develops largely manual skill, earnestness, at- 
tention, perseverance, and it inspires a taste for labor; but it holds 
the pupils too narrowly to the reproduction without variation of the 
models given." The child becomes a workman, active, correct, pains- 
aking, conscientious ; but he has not sufficient occasion to develop 
his spirit of initiative; his imagination cannot take the least flight, it 
is shut up in an iron circle. We think that manual labor would gain 
much as an educating force if it were intimately connected with instruc- 



564 Keport of the 

tion in drawing and geometrical forms. It is necessary to accustom 
the pupils to work, not only after models, but also after drawings. 
The educational value of drawing is indisputable. The methodical 
teaching of this subject habituates the mind to attention, teaches it 
to analyze, to combine forms; it gives to the thought a correct, exact, 
clear expression ; it makes the imagination fruitful, develops the 
taste, makes the hand supple. In respect to manual labor, drawing 
has an importance which no one can fail to observe. By the purifi- 
cation of the taste, the adornment and multiplication of forms, it 
leads to the application of art to industry; it is the necessary foun- 
dation of manual occupations which aim to reproduce forms in mate- 
rial ; as it takes account of no conditions except such as relate to 
form, it finds application in all industries, whatever may be the raw 
material upon which they are employed. This can be seen in all 
trades ; the tailor designs his patterns ; the carpenter works after pro 
files; the engraver begins by drawing a sketch of the ornamentation 
which he proposes to reproduce upon wood, stone or metal. For all 
material arts, drawing is the language par excellence^ of a clearness, 

precision and conciseness, which the language of words cannot attain. 
* * * * 

These principles are not contested ; why are they not applied in the 
exercises of the shops attached to schools ? It has been said to us that 
this application, so evident in theory, meets great difficulties in prac- 
tice ; that children of ten to fourteen years do not know how to de- 
sign or to interpret designs in such manner as to work correctly ac- 
cording to graphic representations. To what must be attributed the 
slight progress which pupils of the primary schools generally make in 
drawing? To the method followed, to the small amount of time given 
to this branch of instruction. Drawing is an art which requires many 
exercises, and daily application. When children are required to draw 
only one or two hours a week, the result cannot be satisfactory, and 
they are altogether fruitless unless a natural and progressive course is 
followed. The method of the academies is no more suitable for teach- 
ing drawing in the primary school, than the method of the colleges 
and universities is for teaching children the simplest notions of gram- 
mar, geometry, history or the natural sciences ; here, still, and above 
all, it is necessary to start from the psychological principles established 
by Pettalozzi and Froebel, to follow their applications through the 
entire course of primary instruction, and to constitute a progressive 
series of designs after nature, without entering into the domain inac- 
cessible to the intelligence of children — of projections and scientific 
perspective. The eye and the hand must be exercised in the exact 
perception and faithful reproduction of material forms, by proceeding 
gradually from the simple to the composite. The child does not at 
the outset observe objects in their totality ; the relief escapes him ; he 
sees only surfaces, or, rather, the limits of surfaces; the tracing of 



Industrial Education Commission. 565 

contours is a point of departure for the instruction in drawing in the 
primary school — contours as they are, and not as they present them- 
selves to the eye, with the deformations due to perspective. This 
drawing of contours is the natural drawing. Observe the attempts of 
children when left to themselves; they reproduce the silhouette of 
objects which they see- — houses, furniture, animals, etc. — by tracing 
lines which mark limits, without concerning themselves with relief. 
Perspective drawing is the higher degree ; it cannot be entered upon 
successfully until towards the close of the primary studies. 

But linear drawing, applied to the representation of plans, sections, 
profiles, etc., can be successfully taught to children as well as the 
simple combination of lines suggesting ideas of ornamentation, and it 
is precisely this drawing which should be combined with manual oc- 
cupations. 

In my view, the progressive order to be followed in the teaching of 
manual work based upon drawing, would include : 

1. Working after models, and at the same time reproducing the 
models by linear drawing. 

2. Working after models designed. 

3. The composition of new forms imagined or designed by the pu- 
pils and reproduced materially. 

We made at Naas an experiment which confirms this view. The 
pupils of the primary school drew plans and sections, on a scale of 
one-half, of two objects which they did not know, and which were not 
a part of the series ; they were then directed to make the articles after 
their drawings; the results were very satisfactory. We reported the 
labor which was best done, and that which was least correct. 

(c) Who Should he Charged with Teaching Manual Work in the 

Primary School. 

To those who have seriously studied pedagogical questions, there is 
no occasion to demonstrate that any system of instruction is ineffec- 
tive which has not an educational basis. Instruction and education 
are not two different things, but two faces of ihe same thing. As 
Herbart says, "There is no education without instruction, and it is 
impossible to understand an instruction which is not educative." But 
there are many persons who, although strongly interested in the 
schools, do not possess the necessary qualifications to resolve the 
purely pedagogical questions which they raise ; it frequently happens 
even that they use their influence to promote ideas, programmes and 
solutions which, far from being favorable to the progress of instruction, 
are calculated to hinder it. It is to be feared that in what concerns 
the introduction of manual training into the primary schools, erroneous 
ideas will come to light and find advocates with this class of citizens 
who favor the school but are incompetent. Thus when one sets forth 



566 Report of the 

tins question of manual work amon^ persons unfamiliar with primary 
instruction, the majority go straight to the following conclusions: 
First, that it is necessary to annex to the primary school a course of 
apprenticeship in different trades ; second, that it is necessary to intrust 
this instruction to good workmen. 

But both of these conclusions are false. We have already made 
the character and the aim of manual training in the primary school 
so far appear that we need not dwell upon the first ; as for the second, 
it must be here considered. 

The experiments of Basedow, Francke, etc., as to manual training 
— of which these illustrations educators well understood the educa- 
tional bearing — failed principally because the instruction in this 
branch was intrusted to persons who considered the school as a work- 
shop, and treated the pupils as apprentices. We have elsewhere 
noted the failure of method in the shops of apprenticeship at Gothem- 
bourg, where the instruction is given by artisans ; on the contrary, 
wherever we have seen teachers or persons trained pedagogically 
engaged in the work, we have been able to recognize the superiority 
of their instruction. The purpose is not to initiate pupils into the 
mechanical processes of a trade, but to subject them to a course of 
methodical manual work, which exerts a happy educational influence 
upon them. Now artisans, even the most skilful in their trade, are 
in genera] incapable of giving suitable instruction in manual work in 
the primary schools. We say in general because exceptions can be 
found, selected workmen have sometimes succeeded, by following the 
pedagogical course of manual work, in acquiring a certain aptitude 
fo/instruction ; but they are very rare. 

vThe great obstacle to the introduction of manual training in schools 
is not a question of expense, but the difficulty of forming a capable 
body of teachers. It is far better to do nothing in this field than to 
undertake experiments with men who do not possess both the tech- 
nical and the pedagogical fitness ; for, in this case, one goes straight to 
a failure which forms the basis for declaring that instruction in 
manual work in the primary school has been practically demonstrated 
to be impossible. There is the real danger; it is necessary to avoid 
it. The teachers for manual work ought be recruited from among 
the primary teachers ; those for the future should be prepared in the 
normal school, For present actual needs the only efficacious means 
is in organizing temporary courses; it is this which has been done in 
Sweden. When in that country the question was first raised of pre- 
paring teachers for instruction in the Slojd, a tempest of indignant 
protestation arose in all quarters. ''What! the primary teacher, this 
man charged with a kind of moral, literary and scientific priesthood 
was he to be lowered to the role of the workingman, and the school to 
be transformed into a shop ? No teacher conscious of his proper dignity 
and of that of this mission would lower himself to handle the plane 



Indi^^strial Education Commission. 567 

or the saw before his pupils; moreover, teachers have already an oc- 
cupation and employment sufficiently rude, and they are wanting; in 
tWtechnical capacity." 
V^It is the history of all innovations. We saw the same manifesta- 
tion in Belgium when there was a question about introducing instruc- 
tion in gymnastics into the schools, and still later, about instruction 
in geometrical forms and the natural sciences. The importance ot 
proposed reforms is not well understood at the outset. Well mean- 
ing persons, having no confidence in themselves, and with the utmost 
good faith, raise mountains of arguments which have been a hundred 
times refuted. Vain efforts! The progress goes on, and when the 
reforms are finally accomplished, they frequently receive the support 
of the very persons who first resisted them with the most conviction 

Zd energy. 
In Sweden the tempest subsided little by little ; the subject was dis- 
ssed in the press and in teachers' gatherings, and the original oppo- 
sition vanished. It came to be understood that the instructor did not 
lose dignity by putting on the workman's apron or blouse and show- 
ing the children how to work in material. Honorable and useful work 
cannot humiliate him who does it. There is but one true honor : to 
work ibr the good of humanity. Have we not seen men in high position 
secure reputation by devoting themselves to the labors of the shop in 
order to inform themselves, or divert themselves, or benefit their 
health? Among the cases cited are those of Louis XVI., who was a 
locksmith; Feter the Great, who became a carpenter in order to pre- 
pare the naval power of his empire ; Maximillian of Austria, who forged 
arms; Luther, Frederick of Sweden and Louis XV., who were turners, 
etc. It is a well-known fact that at present, in the Royal family of 
Prussia every prince must learn a veritable trade, in order that his 
education may be as complete as possible. And the illustrious Glad- 
stone — does he not seek repose from public cares by exercising the 
trade of a wood-chopper? 

It is true that the primary teacher has already enough to do. He 
gives thirty hours a week to lessons; he needs, on the average, a 
dozen hours to prepare them well ; add forty-eight hours for sleep 
and eighteen for meals, that makes a total of one hundred and six 
hours occupied out of one hundred and forty- four of the week, not 
including Sunday. There remains thirty-eight hours out of which it 
is possible for him to take some to be devoted to instruction in manual 
work. Moreover, the fatigue of this instruction will not go to increase 
that produced by his school work ; the work of the shop, on the con- 
trary, is an excellent hygienic exercise ; it counterbalances the exer- 
cise of the brain. It appears to us, moreover, just to take account of 
this increase of useful work required of the teacher, by increasing his 
salary. 

The Swedish teachers, having recovered from their first transient 



568 Report of the 

prejudice, have resolutely undertaken this new task, the importance 
of which they understand, and at present the Slojd is taught in about 
600 primary schools. * * * * * * 

The argument about the aptitude and preparation of the teachers 
is no longer put forward, since numerous individuals of the tea^ihing 
body have proved by their example that the necessary capacity for 
the Slojd can be acquired when one has the will and the courage to 
set himself about it. The problem is not to transform the primary 
teacher into a skilled workman, perfectly informed of all the practi- 
cal processes of the trade ; the aim is quite different, and in two tem- 
porary courses of five or six weeks each, separated by an interval of 
a year, a teacher can make the necessary preparation provided he 
continues to perfect his work by himself. We have Jdescribed the 
organization of the temporary courses at Naas ; that is a good model 
to imitate. In Belgium experiments of this kind have been made 
with reference to other branches much more difiicult than manual 
labor. Instruction has been given successfully to numerous teachers 
by means of temporary courses, in the branches of knowledge neces- 
sary for teaching with profit the new branches inscribed in the pro- 
grammes : gymnastics, drawing and the natural sciences. 

But for the future, the preparation of teachers with reference to in- 
struction in manual work, must be made at the normal school. In a 
recent conference, the directors of the Swedish normal schools unani- 
mously declared that it was highly desirable to introduce the teaching 
of the Slojd into these institutions. Up to the present time (1883)i 
the Swedish government has taken no definite step in this direction, 
but a royal decree of September 11, 1877, shows that it desires to 
reach a solution. At the normal school of Carlstad the Slojd has 
been successfully taught for several years. The experience of the 
normal schools of Finland, where manual training has been taught 
since 1863, also confirms this proposition. 

In 1877, Mr. Salomon made an interesting inquiry. He addressed 
to 3,363 teachers of Sweden, a circular containing several questions 
relative to the teaching of manual training, among which are the fol- 
lowing : 

1. Do you possess some degree of practical knowledge in any manual 
work whatever? 

2. Are you disposed to teach the Slojd ? 

3. Are you willing to use your influence to introduce this instruction 
into the primary school ? 

One thousand five hundred and sixty three teachers (46.50 per cent.) 
responded. 

To the first question : 597 (38.2 per cent. ) declared that they already 
possessed some technical skill; 820 (52.5 per cent.) that they possessed 
none; 146 (9.3 per cent.) did not reply to this question. 

To the second question: 463 (29.7 per cent.) declared themselves 



Industrial Education Commission. 569 

disposed to give this instruction themselves; 782 (50 per cent.) replied 
negatively; 318 (20.4 per cent.) did not answer this question. 

To the third question: 1,090 (69.7 per cent.) declared themselves 
favorable to the introduction of this instruction in the primary school; 
79 (5 per cent.) made the same answer but with certain conditions ; 
239 (15.3 per cent.) declared themselves opposed; 115 (10 per cent.) 
did not answer the question. 

These answers have only a historical importance. Within five years 
the question of manual training has madeimmense progress in Sweden- 
It is better understood ; the value of this means of education is proved 
by experience, and it can be afiirmed that to-day the immense major- 
ity, if not all the Swedish teachers are favorable to this instruction. 

There are in Sweden, as in every country, teachers to whom this 
instruction cannot be intrusted because of their age, their infirmities, 
etc. Furthermore, many classes of boys in the large towns are taught 
by women. In these two cases the instruction in manual work 
should be given to special teachers, pedagogically prepared, but never 
to workmen. 

These results are of a kind to encourage those who, in other countries, 
are devoting their efforts to the constant improvement of popular 
instruction, and particularly to the introduction of manual training. 
As to the Belgian schools, we think that the preparation of teachers 
who desire to undertake instruction in manual training could be 
made, as at Naas, by means of temporary courses. In the same way, 
also, professors of Slojd could be trained for the normal schools, in 
which, according to the programme ot 1880, two hours a week in the 
lower divisions and one in the upper division must be demoted to 
manual training. 

The expense of equipping a shop and the purchase of material 
would not involve a very considerable amount. * * * By divid- 
ing the pupils of the normal school into groups of about twelve or six- 
teen, the teacher of Slojd would have from fourteen to sixteen hours 
a week of instruction in a school of one hundred pupils ; consequently 
one man would be enough. This course should be intrusted to a pri- 
mary teacher specially prepared for giving instruction in manual train- 
ing ; the professor in pedagogy should direct the instruction. 

In order to assure the success of this new study, account should be 
taken at the different examinations of the progress made by pupils. 
The diploma also should state the fitness of the bearer to give instruc- 
tion in manual training. 

(d) Pupils. 

At Naas manual work is taught only to pupils of the upper classes 

of the primary school. Mr. Salomon thinks, nevertheless, that this 

instruction should be given to all children, and commence as early as 

possible ; but the point was to secure the success of the reform, and 



570 Eeport of the 

to establish a practical method. The work was considerable, aud it 
would have presented insurmountable difficulties if it had not been 
limited. The time was not ripe for a complete organization. To 
formulate theoretical principles and to support them by solid argu- 
ments is not difficult, for the elements of a woik of this kind are 
found in numerous publications ; it suffices to collect them and adapt 
them to the circumstances of the time ; but it is quite different when 
one proposes to leave the domain of theory in order to establish 
a method conformable to principles, and confirm it by practice. 
The wisest course is to concentrate all one's activity upon one feature 
of the problem, and when a satisfactory solution of that has been 
reached, to complete the work already begun. This was the course 
adopted at Naas. It can be said that one reason why the teaching of 
Slojd has advanced rapidly in the Swedish schools is that it was in- 
troduced first onl}^ in the upper classes. The average age of the 
pupils for working in wood after the method at Naas is twelve years, 
but it may be begun one or two years earlier ; that depends upon the 
physical strength of the children. We have seen in the shops of the 
schools at Naas, Stockholm, etc., pupils of eleven and even ten years, 
who worked at the bench without difficulty. 

In Sweden there are, on the average, S7 pupils — 45 boys and 42 
girls — for one teacher. Of tliis number there are about 20 boys of 
twelve years and upwards, who undertake wood -working. A teacher 
can give instruction in it to a group of a dozen pupils. When the 
number is greater, the oversight is too difficult ; the pupils handle the 
toois badly, form bad habits of work, and make little progress. It is 
much better to begin with tour or six, selected from among the most 
intelligent and most active, and when they have reached a certain 
degree of facility, to increase the number gradually up to twelve. 
The ordinary school, numbering twenty boys of twelve years and 
upward, will thus include two sections for manual work. Younger 
pupils, if vigorous, may be added. 

The best measure of discipline is temporary or permanent exclusion 
rom manual training. It is applicable to negligent or careless stu- 
dents, and it is effective, because experience shows that children set 
great store by the occupations of the shop. 

(e) The Place, 

The class room is not convenient for wood- working; the benches 
and the tools cannot be conveniently arranged there, and after each 
exercise it is necessary to clear up. 

When a new school house is built, it is easy to construct a separate 
room; in existing buildings one large class room can be divided, or a 
room which is not required for the general purposes of the school can 
be set aside, or a place can be prepared in the basement ; otherwise a 
shop might be built (or rented) in the immediate neighborhood. 



Industrial Education Commission. 571 

In all cases a school workshop should satisfy these conditions : 

1. It should be in the neighborhood of the class rooms, but suffi- 
ciently removed from them to prevent the noise of the work Irom in- 
terfering with the other exercises, 

2. The rectangular form is most convenient. Benches should be 
placed perpendicular to the long side. 

3. For the simultaneous work of twelve pupils, the room should be 
at least 5.20 metres by 6 metres or about 2.75 square metres for a 
pupil. In cases where a lathe is set up, the length of the room should 
be increased 1 metre. 

4. The height should not be less than 3.50 metres. 

5. The windows should be large ; their openings should occupy 25 
to SO per cent, as much space as the floor. It is convenient to place 
them in all the walls of the room as far as possible. The window-sill 
should bo at least 1.50 metres above the floor, in order to avoid the 
breaking of glass. 

6. It is well to wainscot the walls, in panels, to the height of 2 
metres, and to paint the rest in oil colors. 

7. The stove should provide for the preparation of the glue. The 
temperature should not exceed 12.5 degrees, for work at the bench 
develops warmth of the body. 

8. A closet for tools is not indispensable.* Racks may be placed 
along the walls for the tools, which should be carefully numbered and 
arranged in order, so that it may be easy to find them. 

9. If the work is carried on in the evening, it is necessary to sus- 
pend the lamps by horizontal wires so as to permit of sliding them 
to give light at difPerent places on the bench, f 

10. Near the shop should be a separate room for models and articles 
made. 

11. The woods should be placed under a shed, well aired and not 
far from the shop. The latter should have a door on the side toward 
the shed. Wood can also placed in the attic. 

(f j Time. 

The exercises in manual work should continue at least two hours. 
A certain amount of time is employed iu preparing the tools, the 
material, the models, and, at the end of the exercise, in replacing 
them ; if only one hour is allowed, the work is broken off* when it is 
hardly begun. Exercises of four hours are too wearisome. From two 
to two- and-a half hours make a good average for children. 

In order to obtain any results, it is necessary that the exercises 
in the shop be taken at leist once a week. Thus, if the teacher has 
two or three sections, he will have to spend from four to six hours in 



^It is, however, desirable — Trs. 

t This would be found an excellent arrangement, also, where electric light is used, 
the lamp being fitted with a light hook and suspended by a long cord.— Trs. 



572 Keport of the 

that branch of his teaching. In many of the Swedish schools the 
pupils spend from fcur to six hours a week in manual work. That 
is the most favorable arrangement in a school with several teachers; 
this work can be divided among them. It is better, in general to 
devote the morning to the intellectual studies and the afternoon to 
manual work. In certain places the studies are suspended one day 
in the week in order to devote more time to shop exercises. 

(g) The equipment. 

The equipment {materiel) includes the tools, the models, the raw 
material. 

It is important to reduce expenditures to the minimum. 

The experience at Naas has enabled us to arrange a list of tools 
necessary for the simultaneous work of six and twelve pupils. We 
publish this list with the price of tools in Sweden. The collection of 
models costs fifty crowns (about $14). 

We have (on a previous page) set forth the principles according to 
which this series of models has been fixed upon. 

As for the raw material, it includes nails, glue, and woods of dif- 
ferent kinds. The wood is procured in plank or in timber. 

At Naas it has been found that, on the average, the cost of wood 
for making the first twenty-five models of the series amounts to 
1.88 francs; for the twenty-five following, 3.75 francs; for the last 
fifty, 15.62 francs ; total, 21.25 francs. 

If the hundred models are made in three years, the annual expense 
per pupil for the raw material is reduced, then, to seven francs ; in the 
country districts it is less. 

4. Conclusions. 

Presented to the Minister of Public Instruction by Messrs. Sluys 
and Van Kalken, as results of their observations in Sweden : 

1. Manual labor should make a part of the programme of the 
primary schools, in order to assure the integral and harmonious 
cultivation of all the faculties ot the child, by the progressive and 
methodical development of manual skill or of technical aptitude, 
which, in the existing school organization, is not made the object of 
special exercises. 

2. The instruction in manual work should be based upon the same 
general pedagogical principles as instiuction in any other branches of 
the programme. It has for its aim the systematic cultivation of the 
pupil, and not apprenticeship to specific trades. 

3. In order to secure for instruction in manual work the pedagogi- 
cal character which it ought to have, the regular teacher should be re- 
quired to give it. 

4. Those now actually employed in teaching can be prepared for 
this part of their work by means of temporary courses. 



Industrial Educaiion Commission. 573 

The teachers for the future should be prepared for this instruction 
in the normal school. 

5. The programme of instruction in manual work should include : 

(a) For the first grade of the primary schools (pupils from six to 
eight years) occupations required by FroebePs method (Kindergar- 
ten), three hours a week. 

(b) For the second grade of the primary schools (pupils from eight 
to ten years), the same occupations, but, more_ specially, modelling 
and working with paper and cardboard, three hours a week. 

(c) For the third grade of the primary school, the superior primary 
school — the course preparatory to normal studies — (pupils from ten 
to fourteen and sixteen years), wood-working according to the method 
of Mr. Salomon, three to six hours a week. 

(d) For normal schools, the theoretical and practical instruction of 
the pupil teachers in the subjects of the above programmes, a, b and c. 

6. The instruction in manual work should be closely connected 
with instruction in geometrical forms and in drawing. 

7. To secure a satisfactory teaching of manual work in the normal 
schools, a temporary course should be organized. 

It would be useful to send some teachers to Naas to follow a com- 
plete course there. 

Extract from Instructions for Teachers. 
[Report of Royal Commission.] 

5. The teacher must show the pupils the use of tools, explain the 
names and arrangement of the parts, and, both by word of mouth and 
by showing, make plain the mode of working, which must be done 
not only tor the single pupils, but as ofien as opportunity affords, for 
the whole division at a time, while all keep still and give attention. 
That the pupils may learn to help themselves, the teacher must not, 
on the other hand, help them except when absolutely necessary. Still 
the finishing touches must be given to the work by the teacher, when 
the pupil cannot do it himself. The teacher must keep his attention 
directed to the exercise of the pupil in accuracy of eye, the awakening 
of his thought, and the opening of his eyes to the iorms of objects. 
Extract from Rules for Pupils. 

7. The wages earned are entered in a savings-bank book made out 
in the pupil's name, but he does not receive this until he leaves 
school ; and, as a rule, not then unless he has been a pupil of the 
school without interruption for three years, or three half-years after 
the age of 12 years. It may be forfeited by staying away from school, 
except in case of sickness or with permission of the teacher, or by the 
pupil rendering himself undeserving by his conduct in or out of school. 

8. Pupils can make a purchase of their work at two-thirds of a mod- 
erate valuation; but in this case no wages are given for the work. 

9. If the pupils furnish their material themselves, as in shoemak- 
ing, tailoring, or bookbinding, they have the product free. 



574 



Report of the 



10. Unconfirmed pupils pay for enrolment money three kronor 
(80 cents) per year, payment being made in advance; pupils who are 
enrolled at New Year pay two kronor. Those who are not in good 
circumstances can, on request, be let off with half payment. The in- 
spector may demand of free pupils that they deposit fifty ore, which 
they receive back at the expiration of the school year if they observe 
the rules of the school. 

Tools Used at Naas. 



Tools. 



10. 
11. 

12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 

33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 



Turning web, 

Leveling saw, 

Common saw, , 

Compass saw, . . . . 

Back saw, 

Jointer plane, 

Jack plane, 

Smoothing plane, 

Curve plane, 

Round-nose pinchers, 

Flat-nose pinchers, 

Pliers, 

Tongs (Smith's), , 

Set of paring chisels, 

Set of mortise chisels, 

Gouges, 

Flat me, 

Round (i) file, 

Rat-tail tile, / 

Triangular file, 

Center bit and augers (24), 

Awl (and case), 

Knife, 

Draw knife, , 

Hammer, 

Mallet, 

Compasses, 

Double compasses, 

Mandrels, 

Screwdriver, 

Wabstrinque, 

Priming wire (artillery) or spout (Ger. Lof- 

feleiisen,) . . 

Screw-press, 

Axe, 

Beam compasses, 

T-bevel, 

Try square, 

Glue pot and brushes, 

Grindstone, 

Oilstone, 

Joiner's bench, 

Metre (yard measure), 

Turner's ciiisels, 

Turner's gouges, 

Sand-paper, 

Turning-lathe, 



Total, 



Number of this 

tool necessary 

for simultaneous 

work in class 

of 12. 



At ISIaas a complete outfit lor 12 pupils costs 600 francs = |120. 



Industrial Education Commission. 575 



VI. SWITZERLAND. 

[Extracts from the Report of the Royal Commission.] 

In this country the elementary and secondary* education is gratu- 
itous, and as to elementary instruction, compulsory. The system of 
instruction embraces the following schools : 

A. Primary schools. ^ 

B. Secondary schools. 
0. Evening schools. 
D. High schools. 

All children between Gf and 14 years of age must attend school, 
and must remain in the primary school until the age of 12. 

Oa leaving the primary school at the age of 12, the children can 
either attend the secondary school, or they may, subject to the pre- 
scribed attendance at a supplementary school, enter into practical 
life. The school course in secondary schools extends over four years, 
and those entering such schools and remaining in them for two years 
(until 14 years old) are absolved from farther school attendance. 

Those who do not enter the secondary school are obliged to attend 
for four years at a supplementary school. ^ * * ^ This school 
is held on two half days a week, and its chief aim is to enable the 
scholars to retain what they have learned in the primary schools, and, 
if possible, to develop it somewhat further. Although primary in- 
struction in private establishments is permitted, about 97.5 per cent, 
of the children of all classes attend the public primary schools. 

One of the best elementary kSwiss schools visited by the Commis- 
sioners is that on the Lindescher Platz, in Zurich. The cost of build- 
ing this school was £43,000 ($215,000), which amounts to £6Q ($330) 
per head. Irregularity of attendance is practically unknown ; all the 
children learn one foreign language; moreover, they are all taught draw- 
ing, and have object lessons in natural history. In the higher classes 
they are instructed in the rudiments of chemistry and physics, great 
pains being taken to place before the children well arranged speci- 
mens, which are contained in a school museum. These museums form 
very noteworthy features of the Zurich schools. Among the objects 
we found there were simple chemical and physical apparatus, chem 

*TheSecundarschulen of Switzerland correspond most nearly to the British higher 
elementary or "graded" schools. 

f From four to five years of age the Swiss children usually attend the Kindergar 
ten schools, conducted according to the system of Froebel. The attendance at these 
schools is optional, and they have no State endowment. 



576 Report of the 

ical specimens, geographical relief- maps, showing the Alps and their 
glaciers, typical collections of. commonly occurring and useful rocks 
and minerals, excellent botanical models, as well as collections of in- 
sects carefully labelled, a complete herbarium, zoological and anatom- 
ical specimens and models ; the collection, in fact, serving as a type 
of what such a school museum should be. Many of the specimens 
were collected and arranged by the teachers. 

All the school subjects w^ere taught intelligently and well. We 
were especially struck with the clean and tidy appearance of the boys, 
and there was a difficulty in realising that the school consisted mainly 
of children of the lower classes of the population. 

The higher schools for boys in the Canton of Zurich consist of the 
Gymnasium or classical school, preparing for the University or the 
Polytechnic, and the Trade School (Industrieschule), which prepares 
for the Polytechriic, or for direct entrance into trade; both ot* these 
former schools being included under the term Cantonal School (Can- 
ton Schule). 

The Gymnasium is entered at 12 years of age, after an examination, 
and consists of six classes, corresponding to one year each, so that the 
pupils leaving at 18 or 19, would pass from the 6th class with the 
leaving '^ certificate," enabling them to enter any University or Poly- 
technic school without an entrance examination. 

The Industrieschule is entered at the age of 14, and consists of four 
classes extending over 3^ years, the first class being a preparatory 
one. From the second class onwards the school separates into two 
divisions — 

(a) A technical section; 
(h.) A commercial section ; 
the former again dividing in the 3d and 4th years into a mathematical 
and a natural science section. The commercial section ends with the 
third year. 

We visited the Cantonal School of the town of Zurich, consisting of 
a Gymnasium and an Industrieschule under the same roof. It con- 
tains about 500 pupils and 44 teachers. The class rooms are exceed- 
ingly large and airy, each fitted with desks for about 40 students, but 
capable of accommodating many more. In the Industrie school 
there is a well-arranged chemical laboratory, in which the students 
have six Rours' practical work per week in the preparation of simple 
chemical compounds. There is a good collection of physical apparatus, 
common to the two schools. The lectures on physics are abundantly 
illustrated by excellent experiments, but the pupils themselves do no 
practical work in this subject. Th^3 teaching of the highest class is 
in advance of that usually found in similar schools in England. In 
connection with the physical collections is a small workshop contain- 
ing a water-motor for working the dynamo, and used for the repair 
of apparatus, etc., but only by the teacher and his assistants. Draw- 



Industrial Education Commission. 



577 



ing forms an important feature of the instruction in this school, an 
average of six hours per week being devoted to this subject. '^ * * 

The secondary schools for girls are analogous to the Industrieschulen 
for bojs. One of these well-conducted institutions was visited by us. 
It is attended by girls between the ages of 12 and 16, of all classes, 
irrespective of social position. The class rooms are all large, and re- 
markably well furnished, as is the case in the boys' school previously 
described. With the exception of needle work and English, all the 
subjects were taught by male teachers. Among the remarkable 
features of this school was the excellent museum. 

A school has been established for the higher training of girls, for 
which these secondary schools prepare them. The educational vote 
absorbs nearly one third of the total expense of the Canton. 

(a) Zurich Cantonal School— Time Table of Gymnasium. 
/. Lower Gymnasium. 



Subject. 



Religion, 

German, 

Latin, 

Greek, 

French, 

Mathematics, 

History, 

Geography and Natural Sciences, 

Singing, 

Writing, 

Drawing, 

Gymnastics, 



Number of Hours Devoted to Each 
Subject. 



Class I. 



4 
2 
3 
1* 

2 
2 

2 



Class II. Class III. Class IV, 



4 
2 
2 
1* 



1* 



3 

7 
7 
6 
3 
3 
2 
1* 



2t 



* An additional hour of choir practice optioi^l. 

t Three hours in summer. 

N. B. — Religious instruction optional ; also Greek in lower school, and Hebrew. 
Students in upper school Avhp take Greek need not study English. Those students 
who take Hebrew may drop French. 



3? Ed.' (.^om. 



578 



Report of the 
//. Upper Gymnasium. 



Subject. 



Religion, 

German, 

Latin, 

Greek, 

French, 

English, 

Hebrew, 

Mathematics, 

History, 

Natural Sciences— 

a. Physics 

h. Physical Geography, 

c. Chemistry, . . . 

d. Natural History, , , 

Singing, 

Gymnastics, 

Exercises with Arms, . . 



Number of Houbs Devoted to 
Each Subject. 



Class I. Class II. Class III 



4 
7 
7 
3 
3* 



* Will be introduced in all three classes. 

f Half of the time devotedto gymnastics, for rifle practice, etc. , in summer. 

X Optional. 



(.b) Time Table of the Industrie Schule. 
A. Preparatory School. 



Subjects. 



Religion, 

German, 

French, 

History, 

Geography, . . . . 
Natural History, . 
Mathematics, . . . 
Caligraphy, . . . 
Freehand Drawing, 

Singing, 

Gymnastics, . . . . 



o ^ 



*Two hours in winter. 
fOne hour optional. 



Industrial Education Commission. 
B. Technical Division. 



579 



Subjects. 



Religion, 

German, 

French, 

English, 

Physics, 

Chemistry, 

History, 

Geography, 

Natural History, 

Mathematics, , 

Geometrical and Technical Drawing, 

Freehand Drawing, 

Singing, 

Gymnastics, 

Mechanics, 

Practical Geometry, 



Number of Hours. 



Class 2. Class 3. Class 4, 



2 2 

5 3 

5 3 

4 4 

3* 2 

2 2 



Note B. — In the natural science division the classes in German, French, English, 
History, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Singing and Drill are identical with the 
above ; there are also the following added subjects : Mineralogy, 3 hours in winter 
only ; Laboratory work in chemistry, 4 hours in winter ; Botany, 4 hours in sum- 
mer and Freehand Drawing, 2 hours. 

Note C— In the natural science division the classes in German, French, English, 
Physics, History, Drawing, Singing and Gymnastics are identical with the above ; 
there are also the following added subjects: Chemistry, 5 hours; Mineralogy, 2 
hours ; Botany, 3 hours, and Mathematics 3 hours. Singing is optional in all the 
classes as is also the religious instruction. 

C. Mercantile Division. 



Number of Hours. 



Subjects. 



Religion, 

German, 

French, 

English, 

Italian, . 

History, 

Geography, 

Physics, ." , . 

Chemistry, 

Knowledge of Merchandise, 

Algebra, . . 

Mercantile Arithmetic, . . . 
Theory of Commerce, . 
Bookkeeping and Accounts, 

Caligraphy, 

Freehand Drawing, 

Singing, . 

Gymnastics, 




Choral singing not obligatory for any class. Exercises with military weapons and 
rifle practice on Saturday afternoons. Military drill one hour in winter. 



* Four hours In winter. 
§Two hours in winter. 



t One hour in winter. 
il Optional. 



Jin winter only. 



5S0 Report of the 

(c) Partial Programme of the Zurich Polytechnic School. 



V. School of Agricultur«) and Forestry. 



A. School of Forest?'!/ {Course Five Sessions). 

First Year''s Course. No. of hours 

per week. 

Mathematics, with revision, 4 

Experimental Physics, with revision, 4 

Inorganic Chemistry, 6 

Revision of the same, 1 

Zoology 4 

Principles of General Botany, 3 

Principles of Forestry, 3 

Plan Drawing, . 2 

In the summer session there will be additional teacliing in Organic Chemistry, 
Special Botany, Petrography, Preservation of Forests, with Applied Zoology and 
Botanical Microscopic work. 

No. of hours 
- Second Year''s Course. per week. 

Plan Drawing, 2 

Topography, 3 

Roadmaking and Hydraulic Engineering, 3 

Agricultural Chemistry, ... 2 

General Geology, 4 

Fundamental Principles of National Economy, 4 

Theory of Climate as atfecting Forestry, 4 

Adaptability of varieties of Timber Trees for Forests, 2 

Principles of Taxation, 3 

Excursions and Practical Exercises, 1 day. 

In the summer session there will be exercises in land surveying, vegetable phy- 
siology with experiments, princij)les of civil law, formation of forests, the history of 
State domains, and statistics relating to the same, business principles, excursions, 

and practical work. 

Fifth Term. 

No. of hours 
per week. 

Principles of Business, 2 

Laws of Commerce and Valuation of Timber and Forest Trees, ... 4 

Practical Utilization of Forests, 3 

Excursions and Practical Exercises, 1 day. 

Laud Surve5'ing, Use of Theodolite, etc., 3 

Laws relating to Property, 3 

B. School of Agriculture. {Total Course.^ Five Sessions.) 

First Yea7''s Course. 
In this division the professors are entitled to allot to each student a special course 
of study in accordance with his requirements and capacity. 

No. of hours 
per week. 

Mathematics, with revision, 4 

Inorganic Chemistry, 6 

Revision of same, 1 

Experimental Physics, with revision, 5 

Zoology, with special attention to the Animals useful and destructive 

to Agriculture and Forestry, . . 4 

Principles of General Botany, 3 

Fundamental Principles of National Economy, 4 

Introduction to the Study of Agriculture, Theory of General Agri- 
culture (Farm Management), Parti, 2 

Plan drawing (3 liours, optional). 



Industrial Education Commission. 581 

In tne summer session the course will embrace Organic Chemistry, Experimental 
Physics, Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Mammalia, Special Botany, Vegeta- 
ble Physiology, Microscopic Work, Petrography, General Agricultural Manage- 
ment, History and Literature of Agriculture and Plan DraAving. 

Second Year''s Course. 

No. of hours 
2jer week. 

Agricultural Chemistry-, Part I (Nourishment of Plants), 2 

General Geology, 4 

Financial Economy (with special reference to the Taxation of Switzer- 
land), 2 

General Agriculture, 5 

Drainage and Irrigation, 2 

General Theory of Cattle Breeding, 2 

Theorj^ of General Farm Management, Part II, 3 

Diseases of Cattle, 2 

Agricultural Machinery and Implements, 3 

Microscopic Exercises (with special reference to the Diseases of Plants) 2 
Roadmaking and Hydraulic Engineering (3 hours, optional). 
Topography (3 hours, optional). 
In the summer term there will be Agricultural Chemistry, Exercises in the Ag- 
ricultural Chemistrj^ Laboratory, Microscopic Exercises, General and Special Culti- 
vation of Plants, Breeding Cattle, Diseases of Cattle (especially INIurrain), Horse 
Management, Shoeing and Breeding of Horses, Principles of Agricultural Ma- 
chinery and Implements, Roadmaking and Hydraulic Engineering, Topography, 
Surveying, General Theory of liaw and Theory of Farm. Management. 

Fifth Term. 

No. of hours 
per week. 

Estimates of Agricultural Produce and Book-keeping, 2 

Sheep Farming and Pig Keeping, 3 

Practical Agriculture, 2 

Agricultural Chemical Technology (Sugarmaking, Distillation of 

Spirits, etc.,) 2 

Practical work in Laboratory of Agricultural Chemistry, 8 

Vine Growing and Production of Wine, 2 

Fruit Growing and Knowledge of Fruits, . 1 

Planning ot Farm Buildings, ; . 1 

General Theor\^ of Law^, 3 

Utilization of Forests (3 hours, optional). 

Critical Examination of the Rotation ot Crops (2 hours, optional). 

(d) Educational Expenditure of the Canton of Zurich. 
The budget of the Canton of Zurich for the whole of its education, amounts to 
1,847,490 fr. (^369,498). The following are the principal items of expenditure : 

Fr. , 

Office expenses, 22,300 

The University, 192,800 

Contribution to Federal Polytechnic, 16,000 

Gymnasiicm, 81,000 

Industrie Schule, 44,000 

Miscellaneous expenses on Cantonal school, 12,900 

Veterinary school, 25,100 

Normal schools, 54,950 

Technikum at Winterthur, 84,200 

Libraries and collections, 50,600 

Scholarships and bursaries to teachers and students, ...... 59,000 

Gas, water and coals, 17 qoo 

Primary schools 1,010,700 



582 Keport of the 

Fr. 

Pensions, etc., . 108,550 

Military drill, ■ 2,500 

Sundry subventions, Winterthur, etc., 65,890 

Total, • • 1,847,490 

The estimated expenditure of the canton under all heads being, for 1882, 5,815,144 
francs ($1,169,029), it follows that the education vote absorbs nearly 32 percent, of 
the total expenses of the canton. In addition to the Cantonal expenditure on edu- 
cation, each Commune pays for its own primary schools. Thus, for example, the es_ 
timated outlay of the town of Zurich for 1881 for education purposes amounts to 
437,900 fr. (1^87,580). Of this total, elementary schools take 119,443 fr. (,523,888), 
183,710 fr. (^36,742) are allotted to higher elementary schools, 15,290 fr. (?3,058) for 
the Reril Gymnasium, 30,075 fr. ($6,015) for the higher girls' school and the normal 
schools for female teachers, 96,724 fr. ($19,345) for miscellaneous expenses, and 
105,000 fr. (^21,000) for interest on loans for the erection of school buildings. 



(e) Cotton Spinning- in Switzerland— Factories of M. M. Heinrich Kunz, 
Windisch, near Zurich. 

We found at the infant school that the children were being taught 
by Kindergarten methods, and had a large collection of sewing and 
plaiting patterns on paper, colored designs, boxes of toys, Noah's 
arks, bricks and sticks, etc., such as we find in the best schools in 
England. The desks, tables, and floor were scrubbed scrupulously 
clean, and the children Avere all neatly dressed and clean. They 
went through physical exercises, sang, counted and gave evidence of 
being intelligently taught. There is also a junior elementary school, 
of which the fees, as of the infant school, are \d. (2 cents) per month. 
Mr. Wunderly believes that even a small payment encourages appre- 
ciation of the schools, and tends to foster a spirit of independence 
among the parents. The oMer children attend the Windisch free 
school at some little distance from the factories, where they receive a 
sound primary education, as good as may be obtained in the larger 
towns. The parents and villagers generally are encouraged to take 
an interest in these schools by the good example of Mrs. Wunderly, 
who actively shares her husband's interest in the welfare of their 
employes. She provides a Christmas tree annually for the school 
children, and a little meeting is held at which they sing and show 
specimens of their work and scholarship, and here she and her hus- 
band meet the children and their parents, and each child receives a 
present from Mrs. Wunderly 's hands. 



(f) Engineering and Machinemaking-, S"witzerland. 

Although in the section of heads of departments, other qualties 
besides scholastic knowledge and training have always been taken 
into account ; nearly all the head men in these works have been through 
the polytechnic or the technicum. 

Every polytechnic student expects to take a position higher than 



INDUSTRIAL Education Commission. 583 

that of the ordinary workman; but in the Swiss machine and engin- 
eering shops, which are comparatively few in number, students from 
the higher schools are so numerous that many of them necessarily 
begin as ordinary workmen, and some never rise beyond this posi- 
tion. With some of these highly educated youths it is rather a dis- 
advantasre to themselves that they should have remained at school 
till twenty years of age, because a few years must elapse before they 
possess the expertness of ordinary workmen, whereas the boys who 
begin wage-earning at fourteen, generally receive sufficient education 
in the elementary schools to enable them to perform intelligently all th e 
work required of them. As ordinary workmen, assuming that there 
were no possibilities of advancement, it was represented to us that 
the boy coming to the shop at fourteen becomes, as a rule, a more 
skilled and valuable artisan than the highly educated youth coming 
at twenty. In actual experience of workshop government it does, 
however, generally happen that the highest positions are eventually 
secured by youths of superior education and scientific training, al- 
though in Switzerland the supply is greater than the demand, and 
consequently mauy must remain workmen, or emigrate to some other 
country where there is a better field for their scientific attainments. 
To sum up the evidence of the heads of this firm on this interesting 
question, it was held that if a workman possesses those moral quali- 
ities which fit him for a higher position, such as that of foreman or 
manager, the acquisition of scientific training is of the greatest value 
to him ; indeed for the higher posts it is indispensable, whilst for fore- 
man it is second only to a thorough knowledge of work and the man- 
agement of men. There are many workmen and foremen possessing 
practical skill and high scientific knowledge who have not attended a 
polytechnic school, and there are some who have enjoyed the fullest 
advantages of the polytechnic school who are not only much inferior 
in practice, but are very deficient in scientific knowledge also, to 
others who have enjoyed fewer educational advantages. A manu- 
facturer's son, who is intended for an industrial or commercial career, 
cannot do better than begin his education at the elementary school 
among the children with whom he will be connected in after life. 
He will learn to respect and admire the good qualities of his play- 
mates; he will better understand their weak points and know how to 
deal with them. Good fellowship and sympathy between master and 
man are qualities that possess a commercial as well as a moral 
value. Moreover, in Switzerland the public free school is the lest 
school for an elementary education. Mr. Hiiber's own son attended 
a primary free school ; after that the Real Gymnasium for a three 
years' course; he is there now, and his father expects him to get a 
general training in science and modern languages till he is turned 
eighteen. He will then enter the workshop for a year to learn the 
use of tools, and to obtain a general knowledge of the terms used in 



58-1: Keport of the 

the shop, the purposes of the roachines, etc. From the shop his 
father hopes to send him to the Polytechnic School for three years. 
By this time he oueht to be a thoroughly qualified engineer, able to 
take his place by the side of the capable men of all countries. 

In going over these works, the Commissioners had a conversation 
with a Yery intelligent foreman engineer. After working in a shop 
as a boy, he attended the department for engineering in the Zurich 
Polytechnic, and having finished the course, he fulfilled the dream of 
all ambitious young men by traveling to England. There he visited 
some of the engineering works of Yorkshire and Lancashire '; worked 
in the drawing office of one of the large machine makers at Oldham, 
and was employed in other capacities at some of the leading estab- 
lishments in the North of England. * * * * 

The educational facilities offered to the poor in Switzerland are be- 
yond all praise, and are highly appreciated by them. Besides the 
free day schools there are free evening and Sunday schools, and in 
the Canton of Zurich, at least, the apprentices and workmen have 
only themselves to blame if they do not continue their education in 
any direction in which they may desire to excel. He looks upon the 
free schools of Switzerland as the mainstay of Swiss independence. 



{g) Conversations — Education in Switzerland. 

To illustrate the influence of the Polytechnic at Zurich upon one 
branch of chemical manufactures, it was stated by one of the most 
eminent and experienced of the professors, a gentleman thoroughly 
familiar with England, that the color manufactures ol Switzerland 
owe their success, if not their origin, to the Polytechnic School. In 
support of this assertion the following figures were given as to the 
value of the coal tar manufactures of the previous year in various 
countries : 

£. 

England, 500,000 ($2,500,000) 

France, 300,000 ($1,500,000) 

Switzerland, 300,000 ($1,500,000) 

Germany, 1,600,000 ($8,000,000) 

So far as Switzerland is concerned, nearly the whole of the raw and 
semi raw materials for the above products had been imported, and 
many of them from England. The products had been very largely 
exported to foreign markets. In the making of these dyes only one 
tirra in England had succeeded thoroughly ; most of the others had 
groped in the dark, without scientific knowledge to guide them. In 
the German works were trained chemists as competent to take up 
new work as old. Switzerland had taken a lead by means of the 



Industeial Education Commission. 585 

higher chemical knowledge imparted to students in the laboratory, 
and she had supplied men for works at home and abroad, who in the 
dyeing industry alone had repaid, ten times over, the entire cost of 
the Polytechnic. 

When there was a movement in the Federal Council for lessening 
the grant to the chemical department of the Polytechnic, it was shown 
by undoubted evidence that within a few years the chemical labora- 
tories had been the direct means of bringing capital to the country 
to the extent of millions of pounds sterling, and that their usefulness 
was crippled for want of better accommodation. The movement for 
lowering the grant was defeated, and a proposal was carried for the 
expenditure of £50,000 ($250,000) upon a new laboratory. 



586 Report op tiiji. 



] JST OF EEPERENCES. 



The following list of titles is not intended as anything like a full 
enumeration of the material consulted by the commission in the course 
of the inquiries prosecuted by the individual members, and in the 
preparation of the foregoing Report and Appendices. Official reports, 
programmes, courses of study, magazine articles, addresses and simi- 
lar documents relating to every branch of the subject have been gen- 
erously furnished and freely used. The following list contains the 
titles of only the most formal and important of the publications con- 
sulted, and they are given here merely ag a suggestive aid to, those 
who may be interested to pursue the subject further: 

Annuaire cleL' Instruct! on Publique, des Cultes et des Beaux-Arts Annee 1888, Paris. 
Apprenticeship Schools in France. By Silvanus Phillips Thompson, B. A. D., So. 

London, 1879. 
Art and Industry. Education in the Industrial and Fine Arts in the U. S., Part I. 

By Isaac Edwards Clarke, A. M. (Bureau of Education). Washington, 1885. 
Association pour L'Enseignement Professionnel des Femmes. Bruxelles, 1884. 
Bench Work in Wood, By W. F. M. Goss. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1888. 
Bureau of Education, United States, Annual Reports, Circulars of Information, Ac- 
Calendar and General Directory of the Department of Science and Art, for the year 

1888. London, 1888. 
City and Guilds of London Institute, Calendar for the Session 1887-88, London. 
City and Guilds of London Institute, a Sliort Notice of the, with an Account of the 

Proceedings at the Opening,of the Central Institution by 11. R. H., The Prince 

of Wales, K. G., President. London, 1881. 
Code de L'Enseignement Primaire. Par E. de Resbecq. Paris, 1887. 
Compte Rendu du Congres International D'Instituteurs et D'Institutrices Tenu au 

Havre du 6 au 10 Septembre, 1885. (Mus^e.Pedagogique). Paris, 1885. 
Congig5 International Ayant Pour Objet L'Enseignement Technique, Commercial 

et Industriel, 20 au 25 Sept., 1886. Paris and Bordeaux, 1887. 
Conseil Sui:erieur De L'Enseignement Technique. Rapport Sur L'Organisation De 

L'Enseignement Technique. Par M. Tresca, Membre De L'Institut. Faris> 

1885. 
Cours Normal De Travail Manuel. Par P. Martin. Paris, 1883. 
Directory -with Regulations for Establishing and Conducting Science and Art Schools 

and Classes. (Department of Science and Art.) London, 1887. 
Ecole (L'). Par Jules Simon. Paris, 1886. 
Ecoles D'Enseignement Primaire Superieur. Historique et Legislation. (Mus63 

P6dagogique.) Paris, 1886. 
Ecoles, Les Grandes, de France, Par Mortimer D'Ocagne. Paris, 1887, 
Ecoles Manuelles D'Apprentissago et Ecoles Professionnels. (Musea F^dagogique). 

Paris, 1887. 



Industrial Education Commission. 587 

Ecoles Nationales Professionnelles, Les Trois. (Vierzon-Voiron-Aruientieres). 

(MU5-63 Fgiagogique.) Paris, 18S8. 
Education et Instruction. Par O. Greard. 4 Vols. Paris,. 1887. 
Education in its Relation to Manual Industry. By Arthur Mc Arthur. D. Appleton 

& Co., NeAV York, 1885. 
D'Enseigaenient (De L') Manuel et Professionnel en AUemagne, etc. Par G. Sali- 

cis et G. Jost. (Mus63 P6Jagogique), Paris, 1837. 
Ensoignemeut du Travail Manuel A L'Esole Primaire. Par E mile Faivre. Paris, 

1887. 
Enseignement (L') Commercial et Les Ecoles de Commerce En France et Dans Le 

Monde Entier. Par Eugene Leautey. Paris, 18S6 
Enseignment (L') de L' Agriculture. (Musej Pe.lagogiquG.) Paris, 18-^7. 
Enseignement (L') des Travaux Manuels, Par A. Sluys. A^erviers, 18S5. 
Enseignment, L', Primaire (1886): Recueil de Documents Parlementaires Relatifs a 
La Discussion, a La Ciiambre des Deputes. (Musej Feiagogique.) Paris, 1886. 
The same, Relatifs a La Discussion au. Senat. (1st Deliberation.) 
The same, Relatifs a La Discussion au. Senat. (2 Deliberation.) 
First Lessons in Wood-working. By Alfred G. Conipton. Ivison, Blakeman & Co., 

New York & Chicago, 1888. 
France As It Is. By Lebon and Pelet. London, Paris, New York and Melbourne, 

1888. 
Guide Practique des Travaux Manuel, Par G. Dumont et G. Philippon. Paris. 
Industrial Education. By Samuel G. Love. E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York and 

Chicago, 1837. 
Industrial Education Association, (New York). "Various Publications. 
Industrial Education in the United States: A Special Report prepared by the United 

States Bureau of Education. Washington, 1883. 
Industrial Instruction. By Robert Seidel. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1887. 
Instruction Speciale sur L'Enseignement du Dessin. (ISlusea Fedagogique). Paris. 
Instruction Speciale sur L'Enseignement du Travail Manuel dans Les Ecoles Nor • 

males D' Instituteurs et Les Ecoles Primaires, Elementaires et Superieures. (Mu- 

s6e F^clagogique.) Paris, 18S6. 
Manual Training. By Charles Ham. New York, 1886. 
Manual Training in the Common Schools : Rej)ort of the Committee on Course of 

Study and School Books, of the Board of Education of the City of New York. New 

York, 1887. 
Manual Training School, The. By C. M. Woodward, A. B., Ph. D. D. C. Heath & 

Co., Boston, 1837. 
Manuel Des Travaux a L' Aiguille, a L' Usage Des Jeunes Filles. Par Mme. Cecile 

Regnard. Paris, 1881. 

National Association (London) for the Promotion of Technical Education. Various 
Publications 

Neaessaire de Trav^aux Manuel. Par M. Coquelin. Paris, 

Proceedings of the International Conference on Education. (4 vols.) London, 1884. 
[Vol. II. Technical Education.] 

Rapport sur la Creation D'Ecoles D'Apprentissage. Par II. Tolain, Senateur. Paris, 

1883. ' 

Rapport sur les Exercices Manuels dans les Ecoles Primaires. Par A. Corbon, Sena- 
teur. Paris, 1880. 

Rapport sur Fetat De L'Instruction Publique dans Quelques Pays de L' AUemagne. 
Par M. V. Cousin. Paris, 1833. 

Rapport sur I'Instruction Publique a I'Exposition Universello de la Xouvelle Or- 
igans, 1884-5. Par B. Buisson. (Mu&e3 Pedagogique.) Paris, 1886. 



588 Report of the 

Rapports sur les Musses et les Ecoles d'art Industrial, etc. en Belgique et Hollande. 

par M. Marivs Vachon. Paris, 1888. 
llapport sur I'Organisation de I'Enseignement Technique. [See under Conseil Su- 

pSrieur, etc.] 

Regiements et programmes D'Etudesdes Ecoles Normales D'Instituteurset D'ln- 

stitutrices. (Mmgs F edagogique. ) Paris, 1886. 

Reports (2) from the Select Committee on Endowed Scliool Acts. London, 1886 and 
1887. 

Reports of United States Commmissioners (Educational Sections) to International 
Expositions. 1. Paris, 1867, Vol. VL; 2. Vienna, 1873, Vol. II.; 3. Philadelphia, 
1876, Vol. VIII.; 4. Paris, 1878, Vol. II. 

Reports (annual and special) of the United States Bureau of Education. 

Report of the New Jersey State Commission appointed to devise a plan for the en- 
couragement of Manufactures of Ornamental and Textile Fabrics. Trenton, 1878. 

Reports (1st and 2d) of the Royal Commissioners on Technical Instruction. (5 vols. ) 
London, 1882-4. 

Reports (8) of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advance- 
ment of Science. London, 1872-5. 

Report of the Special Committee of the London School Board on the Subjects and 
Modes of Instruction in the Board's Schools. London, 1888. 

Report, Thirty-Fourth, of the Department of Science and Art. London, 1888. 

Report on Education in Europe to the Trustees of Girard College. By Alexander 
Dallas Bache, LL. D. Philadelphia, 1839. 

Scheme for Girls' High School. By Charlotte Pendleton and Alice Lippincott. Phila- 
delphia, 1889. 

Statistique de L'Enseignement Primaire., 1829-1882. 3 vols. Paris, 1883-84. 

.Technical Education. By Chas. B. Stetson. James R. Osgood & Co., Boston, 1874 

Technical Education and P'oreign Competition. By Swire Smith. London, 1887. 

Technical Education in a Saxon town. By H. M. Felkin. London, 1881. ■ 

Technical Education in Industrial Pursuits, with Special Reference to Railroad Ser- 
vice. Report to the President of the B. & O. R. R. Co., by Dr. W. T. Barnard. 
Balto., 1887. 

Technical Instruction in Europe. First Part: Endustrial Education in France. By 
J. Schoenhof, Washington, 1888. 

Technical Instruction. Special Report of the Commissioner of Education to the 
United States House of Representatives, Jan. 19th, 1870. [Incomplete.] 

Technical Training. By Thomas Twining. London, 1874. 

Travail Manuel. Par Victor Brudenne. Paris, 1887. 

Travail Manuel, Le S, L'Ecole de la Rue Tournelbrt. Par D. Laubieret A. Bougueret. 
Paris, 1888. 

Ville De Paris: Budget De L'Exercice, 18S8. Paris, 1888. 

Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland. 
London, 18t6. 



I^DEX. 



Page. 

Alabama Polytechnic, 55 

" Tuskegee Normal School, 58 

Barnard, Dr. W. T., Report referred to, 12 

Bean, Col. Theodore W., Report to the commission, 25-34 

Charity Organization Society of the City of Xew York, 38 

Commission, Assignment of topics for investigation, 2 

" Conclusions and recommendations of, 22 

" Object of, 3 

" Organization of, 1 

" Resolution appointing, 1 

Connecticut, , 62-73 

" New Haven Pub. Schools, 62 

District of Columbia, 61 

Fetterolf, Dr. A. H., Report to the commission, 35-40 

Florida, 74-5 

Ferry, Jules, address at Vierzon, 453-7 

Foreign Countries, Manual Training and Technical Education in, ... . 6-9, 423-585 

France, Administrative Organization of, , 423-4 

" Calico Printing, 465 

" Corbon, Senator, Report of, respecting Manual Exercises in the Pri- 
mary Schools, 436-9 

" Desmonlins, M., Account of Professional (Technical) instruction in 

the city of Paris, 444-50 

•* Designing for Textile Industries, 4fc5 

" Educational organization of, 424-5 

*♦ Engineering Works of Schneider & Co., 464 

♦' Laws relating to Manual Training Schools, 457-8 

" Manual and Technical Training in, 430-1 

" Normal Schools, 462-3 

" Paris, Central School of Arts and Manufactures, 46S-70 

'* " Higher Normal School for Manual Training, 459-62 

" " Technical Instruction in, 444-50 

" Programme of Primary and Superior Schools, 432-33 

" Programme of Professional (Technical) instruction, 433-4 

" Resolutions respecting Manual Training, adopted by the International 

Congress at Havre, Sept., 1885, 459 

" School of Arts and Trades at Chalons-sur-Marne, 467 

" Silk Industry, 464-5 

'* Technical Education in, 423-70 

" The different degrees of Education in, 425-30 

" Tolain, Senator, Report of, concerning apprenticeship schools, . . . 439-43 

" Vierzon, The National Professional (Technical) School, at, 450-7 

** '• M. Jules Ferry's address at the laying of the corner stone, . 453-7 

" " Senator Tolain's Report as to the kind of instruction to be 

given, 450-2 

" Women's Work Schools in, 464 



590 Ikdex. 

Page. 

Georgia, : . . . 76-81 

" Atlanta University, 76 

" School of Technology, 77 

Germany, Apprenticeship Schools in, 481-2 

" Beet sugar manufacture, influence of Technical Training on, . . . -188-9 

" Calico Printing, influence of Technical Training on, 489-90 

" Chemical Color Industry, influence of Technical Training on, . . 485-7 

" Conversations on Artistic and Technical Instruction, 482-5 

*' Engineering and Machine Works, 492-4,496-7 

" Higher Elementary Technical Schools, 480 

" Iron Industries of Westphalia, 495, 6 

" Polytechnic Schools in, etc., . 471-6 

" Royal Fachschule of Iserlohn, 497, 8 

" Technical Education in, 471-98 

" Technical Training in Prussia, .• . • 476-8 

" Textile Manufactures, Influence of Technical Traming on, .... 490-1 

Girls— See Industrial Training for. 

Great Britain, City and Guilds of London Institute, 510-12 

" Finsbury Technical College, 512 

" Manchester Board Schools, 512 

" Owens College, ... • • • 522-3 

" Polytechnic Institute (London), 513-5 

" Science and Art Department, 499-509 

" South Corporation Industrial School, 521-2 

" Technical Education in, 499-524 

" Workshop school, Mather &, Piatt's, 515-20 

Industrial and Te* hnical Education in the U. S. (Appendix I), 50 

''Industrial Education," "Scientific Education," "Technical Education" de- 
fined, . . 4 

Industrial Training for Girls, 399-422 

" " Boston public schools, 399 

'• " Brooklyn, Pratt Institute, 403 

" " Cleveland public schools 406 

" " Lafayette, Ind., Purdue University, 407 

" " Newport( Rhode Island) Indus. School for Girls, 409 

" " New York City public schools, 411 

" " Philadelphia public schools, 415 

" " Pittsburgh School Kitchen, 419 

" " Toledo— Manual Training School, Department of 

Domestic Economy, 421 

Illinois, 82-95 

" Beardstown public schools, 82 

" Chicago Manual Training School, 84 

" Peru, public schools, 91 

" State University, 91 

Indiana, 96-117 

" Indianapolis public schools, 96 

*' Purdue University, : 96 

" Rose Polytechnic Institute, 107 

Iowa, 118-120 

" State Agricultural College, 118 

Kindergarten, The, 21 

Land Grant Act of 1862, 7 

Legislation in Massachusetts, 28 

" in New Jersey, 29 

" in New York, 33 

" in Pennsylvania, 34 

*' in Congress (bill pending), 34 

Luckey, Sup't. George J., Report to the Commission, 47-9 



Ijsdex. 591 

Page. 

Maine, 121-125 

" State Col. of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, 121 

:\ranual Training for young women, 21 

Manual Training, from an economical standpoint, 12-16 

" trom an educational standpoint 10-12 

<' in Reformatories, Dr. Fetterolf's report, 19, 35-42 

<' in rural scliools, 18 

" in the public schools, 16 

" Purpose of, . . 8-10 

" Success of, ^ . . . . 17 

«< teachers, need of, 18 

iSIaryland, 126-131 

" Baltimore Manual Training School, 12G 

Massachusetts, 132-155 

<' Boston public schools, 132 

♦' Cambridge Manual Training School, 142 

" Institute of Technology, 135 

" Springfield Manual Training School, 142 

" Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 146 

Mather, Wm., views on education in the U. S., 5 

" Notes on Technical Education in Russia, 524-34 

Minnesota, 1£6-172 

•" Minneapolis public schools, 156 

" St. Paul public schools, 164 

" The University of Minnesota, 157 

Missouri, 173-180 

" St. Louis Manual Training School, 173 

Nebraska, 181-3 

" Omaha public schools, 181 

New Jersey, 184-205 

" Elizabeth public schools, 184 

" Montclair public schools, 198 

" Newark Technical School, 199 

" Orange public schools, 203 

" The Stevens Institute of Technology, , 187 

" Vineland public schools, . 204 

New York, 206-245 

" Albany High School, 2C6 

" Cornell University, 214 

" Jamestown public schools, 221 

" New York public schools, 239 

" Pratt Institute, 209 

" The College of the City of New York, " 225 

" The Hebrew Technical Institute, 228 

" The Industrial Education Association, 231 

Normal Schools in various states; Dr. Schaeffer's Report on 43-7 

" " Their relation to Manual Training, 19 

Ohio, 246-269 

" Case School of Applied Science (Cleveland), . . . . ' 254 

" The Cleveland Manual Training School, 259 

" The Technical School of Cincinnati, 246 

" The Toledo Manual Training School, 261 

Pennsylvania, 270-376 

" Carlisle Indian School, 270 

" Eastern Penitentiary, extracts from annual reports of Inspec- 
tors, 35_8 

" Girard College, ^ 272 

'* Haverford College, 272 



592 Index. 

Page. 

Pennsylvania Lehigh University, 296 

" Laws relating to Manual Training, Col. Bean's Report, 25-35 

" Public Schools of. Industrial Education in, Supt. Luckey's Re- 
port, ... 47-9 

" Swarthmore College, 369 

" The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, . . . 283 

" The Pennsylvania State College, 300-368 

" The Philadelphia Manual Training School, 274 

" Tidioute public schools, 373 

Plates Illustrating manual exercises, 105-6, 279-82, 305-69 

Polytechnic schools in Europe, general review of, 478-80 

Reformatories, table showing industries taught in various, 41-2 

Rhode Island, 377 

" Newport Industrial School, , 377 

Russia, Handicraft and Industrial School of Moscow, 532-3 

" 'Imperial Technical School of Moscow, 527-9 

" Technical Education in, 524-34 

" Technological Institute in Moscow, 529-32 

SchaeflFer, Dr. N. C, Report to the Commission, 43-47 

Scientific and Technical Education in toreign countries, 6-9 

South Carolina, 378 

" Brainard Institute, 378 

Switzerland, Chemical Manufactures, influence of the Zurich Polytechnic on, 584-5 

" Cotton spinning in, 582 

" Educational expenditures of, 580-1 

" Engineering and Machine Making, 582-3 

" Polytechnic School, partial programme, 580-2 

" Technical Education in, 575-85 

" Zurich Cantonal School, 577-9 

Sweden, Technical Education in, 534-74 

[Condensed translation of Report of Messrs. Sluys and Van Kalken to 
the Belgian Government on "Instruction in Manual Work in Pri- 
mary Schools for Boys." — Qualifications of Teachers, Equipment, 
Methods of Work, etc.. See topics under sub-heads in the text.] 
Sluys and Van Kalken, Report, 12, 534-74 

Tennessee, 379 

<< The University of Tennessee, .... 379 

Texas, 382-4 

" The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, 382 

Tolain, 

Virginia, ... 385-9 

" The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College, 385 

" The Miller Manual Labor School, 385 

Wisconsin, 390-98 

" Sparta public schools, 396 

" The University of Wisconsin, 390 

" The Whitewater State Normal School, 398 



